1. Geology of the Lithosphere 2. Evidence for the Structure of the Crust & Upper Mantle What is the lithosphere and what is the structure of the lithosphere? What evidence supports a layered internal structure of the lithosphere? What is the thickness of the lithosphere and why does it differ between continents and oceans?

2. What is the lithosphere? Continental crust Oceanic crust Upper mantle Asthenosphere Lithosphere outermost layer of Earth crust & upper mantle mechanically strong brittle Lithosphere underlies the lithosphere within the mantle mechanically weak plastic & easily deformed Asthenosphere cold (< 1300°C) hot (>1300°C) lower seismic velocity zone partially molten (<0.5%) higher seismic velocity zone Mantle

3. Asthenosphere Upper Crust Lower Crust Upper Mantle Mantle 6 km/s 7 km/s 8 km/s 7.8 km/s Moho 30 km 100 km How is the lithosphere made up of distinctive layers?

4. How is rock strength related to temperature? Continental crust Oceanic crust Upper mantle Asthenosphere

5. How does heat flow vary with depth? geotherm Geothermal gradient = 30°C/km Geothermal gradient = 10°C/km Lithosphere Asthenosphere (Conduction) (Convection)

7. Vp = P-wave velocity Vs = S-wave velocity κ = bulk modulus (a measure of incompressibility or resistance to change in volume without change in shape) μ = shear modulus ( a measure of rigidity or resistance to change in shape without a change in volume) ρ = density What evidence supports a layered internal structure of the lithosphere?

9. 1. Seismic Wave Velocities P & S wave velocities increase when: rigidity increases compressibility decreases S waves cannot travel through liquids (compressible & no rigidity)

10. Focus What evidence supports a layered internal structure of the lithosphere? Seismic waves 2. Seismic Refraction & Reflection surface Layer 1 Layer 2 Refracted wave Refracted wave along boundary Reflected wave Direct wave Secondary waves Angle of incidence is less than critical angle Angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle Angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle

11. What evidence supports a layered internal structure of the lithosphere? Focus 1909 Mohorovicic (Yugoslavian seismologist) noted 2 sets of seismic waves arriving at seismograph stations from a single earthquake. Station 1 P 1 + S 1 P 2 + S 2 surface Layer 1 Layer 2

12. What evidence supports a layered internal structure of the lithosphere? Focus 1909 Mohorovicic (Yugoslavian seismologist) noted 2 sets of seismic waves arriving at seismograph stations from a single earthquake. Station 3Station 1 P 1 + S 1 P 2 + S 2 surface Layer 1 Layer 2

13. What evidence supports a layered internal structure of the lithosphere? Focus The point where both sets of P + S waves arrive at the same time is known as the Point of Transformation and is used in mathematical equations to work out the depth to Layer 2. Station 3Station 1 P 1 + S 1 P 2 + S 2 surface Layer 1 Layer 2 Station 2

14. Working out the depth to a boundary using seismic waves = thickness of the layer = distance at which both direct and indirect waves arrive at same time (point of transformation) = velocity of Layer 1 (7 km/s) = velocity of Layer 2 (8 km/s) Work out the depth to the boundary if the point of transformation was: 50 km 200 km

15. Focus Seismic Station 1923 – Conrad found a third layer Upper Crust Lower Crust Upper Mantle Mohorovicic Discontinuity Conrad Discontinuity What evidence supports a layered internal structure of the lithosphere?

16. Two-way travel time in seconds Reflective boundary (Moho) Estimate the depth of the Moho and the thickness of the Moho from the diagram opposite, given P wave velocity is 6 km/s. 3. Seismic Reflection

17. a). Explain how the velocities of P and S waves are used to interpret the i). mechanical properties and ii). thickness of the lithosphere b). Explain why the thickness of the lithosphere differs between oceans basins and continents. (25) Geology of the Lithosphere

18. Explain how an investigation of P and S wave velocity-depth curves provides evidence for the outer layering of the Earth. You should restrict your answers to the layers above the base of the asthenosphere. (25) Geology of the Lithosphere

19. Describe and explain global variations in thickness of the lithosphere. (25) Geology of the Lithosphere

20. Describe and explain global variations in thickness of the lithosphere. (25)

21. Describe and explain how a study of earthquake body waves, provide evidence for the variation in thickness and mechanical properties of the lithosphere and asthenosphere. (25) Geology of the Lithosphere

22. The lithosphere is the outer most part of the Earth and includes the crust and upper mantle. It constitutes a single rigid unit which is relatively cold (<1300ºC) and brittle. The thickness of the lithosphere varies over the Earth’s surface. Beneath the continents the lithosphere is between 100 to 400km thick, but beneath the oceans it varies with age, with young oceanic lithosphere being as little as 10km thick and old oceanic lithosphere about 120km thick. Below the lithosphere the asthenosphere is hot, relatively weak and ductile. This essay will show how the study of P and S wave velocities, refraction and reflection provide evidence for this structure. Describe and explain how a study of earthquake body waves, provide evidence for the variation in thickness and mechanical properties of the lithosphere and asthenosphere.(25 marks) Introduction:

23. Discuss the use of seismology in the distinction between the lithosphere and asthenosphere. Comment on the possible significance of temperature in the formation of the asthenosphere. (25) Geology of the Lithosphere

24. The lithosphere is the outer most part of the Earth and includes the crust and upper mantle. It constitutes a single rigid unit which is relatively cold (<1300ºC) and brittle. Below the lithosphere, the asthenosphere is hot, relatively weak and ductile. This essay will show how the study of earthquake body wave (P and S waves) velocities can be used to provide evidence for this distinction. Introduction: Discuss the use of seismology in the distinction between the lithosphere and asthenosphere. Comment on the possible significance of temperature in the formation of the asthenosphere. (25)

25. Explain how earthquake waves can be used to provide information about: a). the internal structure and layering b). the thickness and c). the composition of the lithosphere (25) Geology of the Lithosphere

26. Explain how earthquake waves can be used to provide information about: a). the internal structure and layering b). the thickness and c). the composition of the lithosphere (25) Geology of the Lithosphere Continental sediment, upper crust, lower crust, upper mantle Oceanic sediment, basaltic, sheeted dykes, gabbro, peridotite Seismic velocities: 2km/s – 6 – 7 – 8 (stepped & increases) Depth to focus: Seismic refraction & reflection: Seismic refraction: infer differences Drilling: testing seismic velocities in lab