1. Strategies of Resistance and Self-Determination An overview of historical and contemporary de-colonization strategies of American Indian Tribal Nations Prepared by Alan Parker for “The Long Road Towards De-colonization” Public Lecture, Evergreen State College Tacoma Campus, February 16, 2007

2. Early Colonial Period: 1492 - 1787 - Surviving the Onslaught Contact with European explorers led to small pox and other epidemics that devastated the native population: 80% died. The “Royal Proclamation of King George” issued in 1763 became the building block for relations with Indian nations. The Proclamation reserved to the imperial crown all treaty making, trading rights and other land deals with the natives. The strategy of native people during this period of European empire building was to resist occupation of their lands by war and treaty-making.

3. Relations between US and Indian Nations: Nations within a Nation After the Revolutionary War, the US Constitution (1787) reserved to the Congress exclusive authority to regulate commerce and make treaties with the Indian nations. The Supreme Court relied on discovery doctrine: Indian treaties create “domestic” sovereigns, independent from the states. (Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 1831) Treaty making period: tribes reserve homelands and open vast areas for homesteading.

4. Colonization Policies of the US The US Govt. policy - “forced assimilation”: To civilize the Indian tribal lands were “allotted” to individual tribal members to farm or ranch. To christianize is to civilize: the govt. awarded franchises to different churches in Indian Country. Capitalism and individualism the official policy vs. tribalism. “Indian Wars” were fought to overcome native resistance. The victory over Custer in 1876 was followed by the Wounded Knee massacre of 1890.

5. From the 19 th to the 20 th Century: a strategy of survival At the end of the Indian wars the native population was reduced to 250,000 from 25 million at the start of colonization. Allotment legalized the taking of 100 million acres of native lands that had been reserved in treaties. The colonial system included 200 Indian reservations. Puppet tribal councils were installed and the BIA controlled every aspect of Indian life. Tens of thousand of Indian children were taken from their families and put in boarding schools.

6. US Colonization policy leads to “termination” of tribal rights. After WWII, Congress planned to “get the govt. out of the Indian business”. Federal rights of 106 tribes were unilaterally “terminated” by Act of Congress to “give Indians the right to be just like everyone else”. “Termination”, ultimate threat to Indian legal and political rights galvanized tribal leaders and the modern era of Indian activism was born in the 1950’s.

7. The Beginning of Indian Self-determination The National Congress of American Indians is created in 1944, the first political body organized to represent tribes from across US. The 1961 American Indian Chicago Conference: Indian leaders began a national movement. The agenda: to protect treaty rights, to establish self-determination as govt. policy, and to build self- sufficient economies on the reservations. The success of the 1960’s Civil Rights Movement encouraged Indian leaders to use civil protest strategies. The “Indian Fishing Wars” in Washington State lead the federal court to re-affirm Indian treaties in “Boldt Decision”.

8. Resistance strategy becomes self-determination strategy In 1968 Indian leaders begin taking control of schools on reservations in order to build a new generation. Indian leaders succeed in pushing the Congress to enact the “Indian Self-determination Act” of 1975. Tribal governments began to use Indian Self-Determination Act to take over control of reservations from the BIA. 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act pushed thru Congress by Indians.Tribal courts can now intervene in state courts to keep custody of Indian children in Indian homes.

9. Indian gains of 1980’s are turning point in de-colonization The Indian Religious Freedom Act (1978) recognizes the right of native religions to the same protections as Euro-American religions. Tribal Colleges are created as tribal leaders extend their efforts beyond K-12. Indian Gaming is protected in 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act. The Smithsonian creates National Indian Museum in 1989.

10. What will be the strategy of the future for US Tribal Nations? Economic sustainability strategy: tribal gaming grows from bingo to $24 billion industry in 2006. Will this lead to a new “Indian Country Economy”? Tribal participation in American politics is strategy for many tribal leaders. Tribal voters credited with decisive votes in state and federal elections: tribes contribute millions in the 2002, 04 and 06 elections. Will cultural revitalization, economic sustainability, and new political power lead to total de-colonization?

11. American Indian tribal nations look beyond a US Policy agenda and study the experiences of Indigenous Peoples across the globe. The NCAI proposes an International Treaty of Indigenous Nations and a United League of Indigenous Nations The United Nations work on Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples is stalled in 2006; Indigenous Nations consider creating international political and economic alliances. Nations within a Nation: a new paradigm?