1. Economics, Sixth Edition Boyes/Melvin
Chapter 12
Fiscal Policy
Economics, Sixth Edition
Boyes/Melvin

2. Expansion and Contraction with Fiscal Policy
Expansionary Policy (Stimulus)
Increase Government Purchases
Increase Transfer Payments
Reduce Taxes
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

3. Expansion and Contraction with Fiscal Policy
Contractionary Policy (Resist inflation)
Reduce Government Purchases
Reduce Transfer Payments
Increase Taxes
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

4. Demand-Side Policy: Increased Spending Increases Aggregate Demand
(c) Aggregate Demand and Supply in the classical range of AS curve. (Prices rise without significant improvements in output and employment.)
Price Level
AD1 AD
Y?
Real GDP
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

5. Spending Multiplier
$1 Increased Spending is multiplied by the Spending Multiplier
Spending Multiplier: (chapter 11)
__1__
Leakages
Note: leakages are:
saving rate + import rate
(all stated in their decimal forms)
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

6. Analysis of a Tax-and-Spend Policy
Government increases spending, but finances it with tax increases. The increase in spending shifts AD to the right, but the increase in taxes reduces the incentive to work, shift AS to the left.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

7. Ricardian Equivalence Thesis
If Government increases spending without increasing taxes, consumers and firms recognize that future taxes must rise. Therefore, they save more now and reduce private spending. The increased savings cancels out the increased government purchases in their effect on AD.
Increased Govt. Spending will have no positive impact on AD.
David Ricardo proposed this, and then rejected it in the 1800s. Some (few) economists now assert its relevance again.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

8. Crowding Out
The issue of crowding out is usually raised in the context of increased government spending (G) financed by the issue of debt. Essentially, the government borrows the money it will spend.
The government’s demand for credit drives up interest rates.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9. Crowding Out (cont.)
Higher interest rates result in higher financing costs for firms, and therefore lower investment spending, offsetting (partially or fully) the GDP gains from the increase in government spending.
That is, private investment is “crowded out” by debt-financed public (gov’t) spending.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

10. Other implications of Budget Deficits and National Debt
The crowding out of private investment means a smaller future capital stock. This implies lower output in the future.
Higher interest rates will also cause the currency to appreciate, making foreign currencies and goods cheaper. Imports increase, hence net exports decrease, reducing GDP. This is international crowding out.
The higher the national debt (rising because of budget deficits), the higher the interest payments (debt service) paid by the government.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

11. The Making of U.S. Fiscal Policy
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

12. Complications of Fiscal Policy
Lag times
Recognition Lag
Policy decision Lag
Implementation Lag
Impact lag
A discretionary fiscal policy (one that is NOT an automatic stabilizer) has such long lag times as to be ineffective as a response to cyclical macroeconomic conditions.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

13. Complications of Fiscal Policy
Electoral incentives
Expansionary policy is easy
Tax cuts
Spending increases
Contractionary policy is difficult
Tax increases
Spending cuts
Bias for inflationary over-stimulation
Tendency to run deficits
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

14. U.S. Government Revenues and Expenditures
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

15. U.S. Government Expenditures as a Percentage of GDP
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

16. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

17. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

18. Updated National Debt/Deficit Data
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

19. More Updated Data on US Debt
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

20. U.S. NATIONAL DEBT CLOCK $11,181,629,735,978.62
The Outstanding Public Debt as of 13 Apr 2009 at 11:59:56 PM GMT is:
$11,181,629,735,978.62
The estimated population of the United States is 305,996,271 so each citizen's share of this debt is $36,
The National Debt has continued to increase an average of $3.86 billion per day since September 28, 2007
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

21. U.S. NATIONAL DEBT CLOCK
Outstanding Public Debt as of 07 Apr 2010 at 05:59:13 PM GMT is:
The estimated population of the United States is 308,151,423 so each citizen's share of this debt is $41,
The National Debt has continued to increase an average of $4.11 billion per day since September 28, 2007.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

22. U.S. NATIONAL DEBT CLOCK The Outstanding US Public Debt as of
02 May 2011 at 03:45:27 PM GMT is:
The estimated population of the United States is 310,493,752, so each citizen's share of this debt is $46,
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

23. Fiscal Policy
Demand-side policies: policies designed to stimulate or slow aggregate demand (focusing on Consumption & Government purchases).
Supply-side policies: policies designed to stimulate or slow aggregate demand (focusing on Investment).
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

24. Fiscal Policy
Discretionary Fiscal Policy: changes in government spending and/or taxation aimed at achieving a policy goal.
Automatic Stabilizer: an element of fiscal policy that changes automatically as income changes.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

25. Taxes Two types of taxes:
direct taxes: on individuals and firms. For example, personal income taxes, business income taxes, SSI, FICA
indirect taxes: on goods and services. For example, sales taxes, and value-added taxes (VAT).
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

26. Taxes Three types of tax rate structures:
progressive tax: rate increases with higher income; wealthy pay a higher percentage. (examples: federal income tax, CA state income tax)
regressive tax: rate falls with higher income; wealthy pay a lower percentage. (examples: SSI, FICA, sales tax, gasoline tax, VAT)
proportional tax: rate is constant; everyone pays the same percentage. (for example a 10% flat tax – no real examples in US)
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

27. Automatic Stabilizers
Progressive Taxes
As income falls, the tax rate also falls, helping to maintain buying power, hence maintaining aggregate demand
Income taxes
Corporate income taxes
Capital gains taxes
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

28. Automatic Stabilizers
Transfer Payments: Insure that buying power is not reduced at the same rate as income
Unemployment insurance
Welfare
Subsidies (farm income supports, etc.)
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

29. Demand-Side Policy: Increased Spending Increases Aggregate Demand
(c) Aggregate Demand and Supply in the classical range of AS curve. (Prices rise without significant improvements in output and employment.)
Price Level
AD1 AD
Y?
Real GDP
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

30. Aggregate Demand and Supply Equilibrium
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

31. Central Government Spending by Functional Category
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

32. Central Government Tax Composition by Income Group
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

33. Central Government Tax Composition by Income Group
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

34. Supply-Side Economics and the Laffer Curve
Taxes are a disincentive to productive activity. As marginal tax rates rise, the disincentive effects also grow, shrinking the tax base. At marginal tax rates greater than t, the tax base shrinks at a faster rate than the increases in marginal tax rate. The net result is that increases in marginal tax rates beyond t result in reduced tax revenues.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

35. The Laffer Curve and Public Policy
Reagan Administration argument: Taxes were too high, reduce taxes and revenue will increase.
Reduced Corporate and higher income taxes
Increased Government spending
Result: Growing GDP, but with rising deficits, rising debts
G.W. Bush Administration: Same argument, same result
Reduced corporate and higher income taxes
Increased spending
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

36. US Taxes In Comparison Marginal Income Tax Rates:
US: 15% - 28% (top bracket reduced in 2002 from 39.6%)
Japan: 10% - 40%
UK: 10% - 40%
Germany: 23.9%-53%
France: 10.5% - 54%
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.