1. The sun as a source of Energy Atmospheric Processes

2. Key questions… 1.What is the importance of the sun for life on Earth? 2.What forms of radiation are emitted from the sun? 3.What are the characteristics of insolation and factors which causes it to change?

3. The Sun Yellow star – radiating energy for approximately 5 billion years 70% Hydrogen, 28% Helium, 2% heavier ‘metals’ (oxygen, carbon, neon, iron) Nuclear fusion – heat and light the earth Sole input to energy flows within the atmosphere is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the Sun

4. Nuclear Fusion 148,800,000 km Earth – surface temp = 14°C atmosphere Sun Surface temp = 6000°C Hydrogen atoms fuse → Helium + energy = Nuclear Fusion Note: protons overcome their mutual electric repulsion releasing energy – further reading: Nuclear force 99% released as short-wave radiation – travelling at 297,600 km s

5. Other inputs of heat energy to the atmosphere Negligible inputs of heat energy are supplied from: –geothermal sources volcanic eruptions hot springs –anthropogenic sources domestic heating industry

6. Electromagnetic spectrum All objects with a temperature above absolute zero (–273 o C or 0 K) emit radiation in all directions as electromagnetic waves travelling at the speed of light (3 x 10 8 m s -1 ) Electromagnetic waves are spread across a range of wavelengths – the electromagnetic spectrum Wavelengths vary in size from <0.0001 µm (gamma rays) to several km (long-wave radio) 1 µm (micron) = 1/1000 th mm

7. Electromagnetic spectrum Amount and type of radiation emitted by an object is dependent on the object’s temperature A hotter object will emit a greater amount of radiation and at a shorter wavelength than a colder object Hotter object Colder object X-axis = Wavelength Y-axis = Amount of radiation

8. Emitted over a wide range of wavelengths – solar spectrum 99% - short-wave radiation with maximum output within the visible part of solar spectrum Total amount of solar radiation reaching top of atmosphere = 1366 W m -2, but amount reaching Earth’s surface = c.338 W m -2 (c.25%) Solar radiation

9. Absorption of solar radiation by atmosphere UV radiation –Almost completely absorbed by ozone (O 3 ) in stratosphere Visible light –Atmosphere is largely transparent Solar radiation passing through troposphere is –Scattered –Reflected –Absorbed

10. Earth emits radiation – long-wave radiation Maximum output within the infrared part of spectrum Terrestrial radiation

11. Absorption of terrestrial radiation by atmosphere Atmosphere is only partially transparent to long-wave radiation from Earth’s surface c.94% is absorbed atmosphere, including: –Water vapour (H 2 O) –Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) Part of this is radiated back to Earth’s surface (counter- radiation) – raising surface temperature by c.38 O C c.6% escapes directly to space

13. Earth’s Energy Budget – Effect of cloud cover

14. The Greenhouse Effect

16. Earth’s Energy Budget – Variations with latitude Equator to 35 O N & S – Incoming short-wave radiation (solar radiation) exceeds outgoing long-wave radiation (terrestrial radiation) Polewards of 35 O N & S – Long-wave exceeds short-wave radiation Continual poleward transfer of energy from area of excess to area of deficit via general circulation of atmosphere (70%-90%), ocean currents (10%-30%) and storms.

17. Earth’s Energy Budget – Variations with time of year

18. Green Flash

19. Rare optical phenomena that occur at sunset and sunrise Appears as green spot visible for 1-2 seconds Observed at low altitudes with unobstructed view of horizon (e.g. ocean) Caused by refraction of light – blue light is dispersed and only green light remains visible Green Flash

20. Laws of electromagnetic radiation Stefan-Boltzman Law “The radiation flux (amount of radiation emitted per unit surface area) of an object is proportional to the 4 th power of its absolute temperature” E =  x T 4 E = Radiation flux (amount of radiation emitted)  = 5.67 x 10 -8 W m -2 K -4 (Stefan-Boltzman constant) T = Absolute temperature of an object Hotter objects emit more electromagnetic radiation per unit surface area

21. Laws of electromagnetic radiation Wien’s Displacement Law “The wavelength of peak intensity of radiation emitted by an object is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature” peak =  ÷ T peak = Wavelength of maximum intensity of radiation emitted  = 2898 (Wien constant) T = Absolute temperature of an object Wavelength of peak intensity of solar radiation is within visible part of electromagnetic spectrum: T = 6000 K peak = 0.483 μm (483 nm)

22. Sun v. Earth

23. Laws of electromagnetic radiation Inverse square Law “The amount of radiation reaching an object is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of that object from the radiation source” 1 ÷ d 2 d = Distance between radiation source and object receiving that radiation Amount of solar radiation received at the top of Earth’s atmosphere (150 million km from Sun) = 1366 W m -2 Known as the solar constant

24. Changes in the Solar Constant “The number of polar bears, the length of women's skirts, the stock market: Everything imaginable has been correlated with the solar cycle” RMetS Presidential Address 15 May 2013 16 Jan 2009 29 Mar 2001 14 May 2013