1. Saving, Investment, and the Financial System Premium PowerPoint Slides by Ron Cronovich © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. N. Gregory Mankiw M acroeconomics Principles of Sixth Edition 13

2. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 11 In this chapter, look for the answers to these questions: What are the main types of financial institutions in the U.S. economy, and what is their function? What are the three kinds of saving? What’s the difference between saving and investment? How does the financial system coordinate saving and investment? How do govt policies affect saving, investment, and the interest rate?

3. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 22 National Income Accounts  Rules of national income accounting  Important identities  Identity  An equation that must be true because of the way the variables in the equation are defined  Clarify how different variables are related to one another 2 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

4. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 33 Accounting Identities  Gross domestic product (GDP)  Total income  Total expenditure  Y = C + I + G + NX Y= gross domestic product GDP C = consumption G = government purchases NX = net exports 3 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

5. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 44 Accounting Identities  Closed economy  Doesn’t interact with other economies  NX = 0  (of course, NX also equals 0 when exports equal imports. But that’s not what we mean here)  Open economy  Interact with other economies  NX ≠ 0 4 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

6. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 55 Accounting Identities  Assumption: close economy: NX = 0 Y = C + I + G  National saving (saving), S Total income in the economy that remains after paying for consumption and government purchases Y – C – G = I S = Y – C - G S = I 5 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

7. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 66 Accounting Identities  T = taxes minus transfer payments S = Y – C – G S = (Y – T – C) + (T – G)  Private saving, Y – T – C  Income that households have left after paying for taxes and consumption  Public saving, T – G  Tax revenue that the government has left after paying for its spending 6 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

8. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 77 Accounting Identities  Budget surplus: T – G > 0  Excess of tax revenue over government spending  Budget deficit: T – G < 0  Shortfall of tax revenue from government spending 7 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

9. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 88 Saving and Investing  Accounting identity: S = I  Saving = Investment  For the economy as a whole  One person’s savings can finance another person’s investment 8 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

10. ACTIVE LEARNING A. Calculations ACTIVE LEARNING 1 A. Calculations  Suppose GDP equals $10 trillion, consumption equals $6.5 trillion, the government spends $2 trillion and has a budget deficit of $300 billion.  Find public saving, taxes, private saving, national saving, and investment. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

11. ACTIVE LEARNING Answers, part A ACTIVE LEARNING 1 Answers, part A Given: Y = 10.0, C = 6.5, G = 2.0, G – T = 0.3 Public saving = T – G = – 0.3 Taxes: T = G – 0.3 = 1.7 Private saving = Y – T – C = 10 – 1.7 – 6.5 = 1.8 National saving = Y – C – G = 10 – 6.5 = 2 = 1.5 Investment = national saving = 1.5 © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

12. ACTIVE LEARNING B. How a tax cut affects saving ACTIVE LEARNING 1 B. How a tax cut affects saving  Use the numbers from the preceding exercise, but suppose now that the government cuts taxes by $200 billion.  In each of the following two scenarios, determine what happens to public saving, private saving, national saving, and investment. 1. Consumers save the full proceeds of the tax cut. 2. Consumers save 1/4 of the tax cut and spend the other 3/4. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

13. Clicker question! Given: Y = 10.0, C = 6.5, G = 2.0, G – T = 0.3 If T is reduced by 0.2 and households save all of it, what is the new level of public savings? A.0.1 B.0.3 C.0.5 D.0.7 © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

14. Another clicker question! Given: Y = 10.0, C = 6.5, G = 2.0, G – T = 0.3 If T is reduced by 0.2 and households save all of it, what is the new level of private savings? A.1.6 B.1.8 C.2.0 D.2.2 © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

15. Yet another clicker question! Given: Y = 10.0, C = 6.5, G = 2.0, G – T = 0.3 If T is reduced by 0.2 and households save all of it, what is the new level of national savings? A.1.3 B.1.5 C.1.7 D.1.9 © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

16. Last clicker question for the moment! Given: Y = 10.0, C = 6.5, G = 2.0, G – T = 0.3 If T is reduced by 0.2 and households save all of it, what is happens to private investment? A.It goes down by 0.2. B.Nothing. C.It goes up by 0.2. D.All of the above. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

17. ACTIVE LEARNING Answers, part B ACTIVE LEARNING 1 Answers, part B In both scenarios, public saving falls by $200 billion, and the budget deficit rises from $300 billion to $500 billion. 1. If consumers save the full $200 billion, national saving is unchanged, so investment is unchanged. 2. If consumers save $50 billion and spend $150 billion, then national saving and investment each fall by $150 billion. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

18. ACTIVE LEARNING C. Discussion questions ACTIVE LEARNING 1 C. Discussion questions The two scenarios from this exercise were: 1.Consumers save the full proceeds of the tax cut. 2.Consumers save 1/4 of the tax cut and spend the other 3/4.  Which of these two scenarios do you think is more realistic?  Why is this question important? © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

19. 18 You are wurffless, Alec Baldwin!

20. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 19 The Market for Loanable Funds  A supply–demand model of the financial system  Helps us understand  how the financial system coordinates saving & investment  how govt policies and other factors affect saving, investment, the interest rate

21. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 20 The Market for Loanable Funds Assume: only one financial market  All savers deposit their saving in this market.  All borrowers take out loans from this market.  There is one interest rate, which is both the return to saving and the cost of borrowing.

22. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 21 The Market for Loanable Funds The supply of loanable funds comes from saving:  Households with extra income can loan it out and earn interest.  Public saving, if positive, adds to national saving and the supply of loanable funds. If negative, it reduces national saving and the supply of loanable funds.

23. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 22 The Slope of the Supply Curve Interest Rate Loanable Funds ($billions) Supply An increase in the interest rate makes saving more attractive, which increases the quantity of loanable funds supplied. 60 3% 80 6%

24. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 23 The Market for Loanable Funds The demand for loanable funds comes from investment:  Firms borrow the funds they need to pay for new equipment, factories, etc.  Households borrow the funds they need to purchase houses.

25. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 24 The Slope of the Demand Curve Interest Rate Loanable Funds ($billions) Demand A fall in the interest rate reduces the cost of borrowing, which increases the quantity of loanable funds demanded. 50 7% 4% 80

26. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 25 Equilibrium Interest Rate Loanable Funds ($billions) Demand The interest rate adjusts to equate supply and demand. Supply The eq’m quantity of L.F. equals eq’m investment and eq’m saving. 5% 60

27. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 26 Policy 1: Saving Incentives Interest Rate Loanable Funds ($billions) D1D1 Tax incentives for saving increase the supply of L.F. S1S1 5% 60 S2S2 …which reduces the eq’m interest rate and increases the eq’m quantity of L.F. (but if T actually goes down, S shifts back!) 4% 70

28. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 27 Policy 2: Investment Incentives Interest Rate Loanable Funds ($billions) D1D1 An investment tax credit increases the demand for L.F. S1S1 5% 60 …which raises the eq’m interest rate and increases the eq’m quantity of L.F. (but if T actually goes down, S shifts back!) 6% 70 D2D2

29. ACTIVE LEARNING Budget deficits ACTIVE LEARNING 2 Budget deficits  Use the loanable funds model to analyze the effects of a government budget deficit:  Draw the diagram showing the initial equilibrium.  Determine which curve shifts when the government runs a budget deficit.  Draw the new curve on your diagram.  What happens to the equilibrium values of the interest rate and investment? © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

30. ACTIVE LEARNING Answers ACTIVE LEARNING 2 Answers © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. Interest Rate Loanable Funds ($billions) D1D1 A budget deficit reduces national saving and the supply of L.F. S1S1 5% 60 S2S2 …which increases the eq’m interest rate and decreases the eq’m quantity of L.F. and private investment. (But it may increase public investment!) 6% 50

31. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 30 Policy 3: Govt Budget Deficits Interest Rate Loanable Funds ($billions) D1D1 A budget deficit reduces national saving and the supply of L.F. S1S1 5% 60 S2S2 …which increases the eq’m interest rate and decreases the eq’m quantity of L.F. Private investment goes down, but public investment may increase. 6% 50

32. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 31 Budget Deficits, Crowding Out, and Long-Run Growth  Our analysis: Increase in budget deficit may cause a decline in private investment. The govt borrows to finance its deficit, leaving less funds available for private investment.  This is called crowding out. (This has not been an important problem in the recent past. )  Recall from the preceding chapter: Investment is important for long-run economic growth. If government borrowing isn’t spent wisely, budget deficits may reduce the economy’s growth rate and future standard of living.

33. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 32 The U.S. Government Debt  The government finances deficits by borrowing (selling government bonds).  Persistent deficits lead to a rising govt debt.  The ratio of govt debt to GDP is a useful measure of the government’s indebtedness relative to its ability to raise tax revenue.  Historically, the debt-GDP ratio usually rises during wartime and falls during peacetime—until the early 1980s.

34. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 33 The history of U.S. government debt  Debt of U.S. federal government  As a percentage of U.S. GDP  Fluctuated  0% of GDP in 1836  107% of GDP in 1945  Declining debt-GDP ratio  Government indebtedness is shrinking relative to its ability to raise tax revenue  Government could be living within its means  Government could also be reducing public investment 33 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

35. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 34 The history of U.S. government debt  Rising debt-GDP  Government indebtedness is increasing relative to its ability to raise tax revenue  Fiscal policy cannot be sustained forever at current levels  War – primary cause of fluctuations in government debt:  Debt financing of war – appropriate policy  Tax rates – smooth over time  Shifts part of the cost to future generations 34 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

36. U.S. Government Debt as a Percentage of GDP, 1790–2010 Revolutionary War Civil War WW1 WW2 63.6% in 2010

37. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 36 The history of U.S. government debt  President Ronald Reagan, 1981  Large increase in government debt – not explained by war  Committed to smaller government and lower taxes  Cutting government spending - more difficult politically than cutting taxes  Period of large budget deficits  Government debt: 26% of GDP in 1980 to 50% of GDP in 1993 36 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

38. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 37 The history of U.S. government debt  President Bill Clinton, 1993  Major goal - deficit reduction  And Republicans took control of Congress, 1995  Deficit reduction  Substantially reduced the size of the government budget deficit  Eventually: surplus  By the late 1990s: debt-GDP ratio - declining 37 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

39. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 38 The history of U.S. government debt  President George W. Bush  Debt-GDP ratio - started rising again  Budget deficit  Several major tax cuts  2001 recession - decreased tax revenue and increased government spending  Spending on homeland security –Following the September 11, 2001 attacks –Subsequent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan –Increases in government spending 38 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

40. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 39 The history of U.S. government debt  2008, financial crisis and deep recession  Dramatic increase in the debt-GDP ratio  Increased budget deficit  Several policy measures passed by the Bush and Obama administrations  Aimed at combating the recession  Reduced tax revenue  Increased government spending 39 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

41. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 40 The history of U.S. government debt  2009 and 2010  Federal government’s budget deficit = 10% of GDP  Borrowing to finance budget deficit  Substantial increase in the debt-GDP ratio  Policy challenges for future generations  Putting the federal budget back on a sustainable path  Stable or declining debt-GDP ratio 40 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

42. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 41 Financial Institutions  The financial system: the group of institutions that helps match the saving of one person with the investment of another.  Financial markets: institutions through which savers can directly provide funds to borrowers. Examples:  The Bond Market. A bond is a certificate of indebtedness.  The Stock Market. A stock is a claim to partial ownership in a firm.

43. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 42 Financial Institutions  Financial intermediaries: institutions through which savers can indirectly provide funds to borrowers. Examples:  Banks  Mutual funds – institutions that sell shares to the public and use the proceeds to buy portfolios of stocks and bonds

44. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 43 The Meaning of Saving and Investment  Private saving is the income remaining after households pay their taxes and pay for consumption.  Examples of what households do with saving:  Buy corporate bonds or equities  Purchase a certificate of deposit at the bank  Buy shares of a mutual fund  Let accumulate in saving or checking accounts

45. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 44 The Meaning of Saving and Investment  Investment is the purchase of new capital.  Examples of investment:  General Motors spends $250 million to build a new factory in Flint, Michigan.  You buy $5000 worth of computer equipment for your business.  Your parents spend $300,000 to have a new house built.

46. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 45 CONCLUSION  Like many other markets, financial markets are governed by the forces of supply and demand.  One of the Ten Principles from Chapter 1: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity. Financial markets help allocate the economy’s scarce resources to their most efficient uses.  Financial markets also link the present to the future: They enable savers to convert current income into future purchasing power, and borrowers to acquire capital to produce goods and services in the future.

47. SUMMARY The supply of loanable funds comes from saving. The demand for funds comes from investment. The interest rate adjusts to balance supply and demand in the loanable funds market. A government budget deficit is negative public saving, so it reduces national saving, the supply of funds available to finance investment. When a budget deficit crowds out investment, it reduces the growth of productivity and GDP. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

48. SUMMARY National saving equals private saving plus public saving. In a closed economy, national saving equals investment. The financial system makes this happen. The U.S. financial system is made up of many types of financial institutions, like the stock and bond markets, banks, and mutual funds. © 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.