1. P3 – Radioactive Materials

2. Radioactive Elements Some elements emit ionising radiation all the time and are called radioactive Radioactive elements are naturally found in the environment, emitting background radiation

3. The Atom Electrons, Protons, Neutrons and the Nucleus are all parts of an atom The Nucleus, made of Protons and Neutrons

4. Isotopes Every atom of any element has the same number of protons but the number of neutrons may differ The same element with different numbers of neutrons is called an isotope These 3 atoms are all isotopes of Hydrogen:

5. The Nucleus is the only thing involved in Radioactive Substances Radioactive Materials are unchanged by: – Chemical reactions (only electrons involved in these) – Changes of state (Solid, Liquid, Gas) – Passing electricity through them (only electrons involved) – Crushing

6. 3 Types of Radiation Alpha: – 2 Protons + 2 Neutrons Beta: – 1 Electron Gamma: – High energy wave

7. An unstable nucleus will emit radiation to become more a more stable nucleus

8. Half-Life Overtime, the Activity of Radioactive Sources Decrease Half-Life: The time it takes for the number of unstable atoms in a sample to halve. Carry out simple calculations

9. Ionising Radiation Ionising Radiation removes electrons from atoms creating Ions (Charged atoms). These can then take part in other chemical reactions

10. When ionising radiation strikes living cells these may be killed or may become cancerous

11. Helpful Ionising Radiation Ionising Radiation can be used to: – sterilise surgical instruments – sterilise food – treat cancer

12. Radiation Dose Sieverts: A measure of the possible harm done to your body Based on the amount and type of radiation

13. Irradiation: body exposed to radiation from an external source Contamination: can affect the body internally if it gets into the body through lungs, stomach or a wound

14. Safe Radioactive Substances All radioactive substances become less radioactive as time passes A substance is only considered safe once its activity had dropped to the same level as background radiation Substances with a long half-life remain harmful for thousands of years

15. Electricity Electricity is a secondary energy source. This means that we get electricity from the conversion of other sources of energy, such as coal, nuclear, wind or solar energy. These are called primary sources.

16. Electricity = Convenient Electricity is convenient because it is easily transmitted over distances and can be used in many ways

17. Making Electricity 1.Coal is burnt to heat water to make steam 2.The steam turns the turbine 3.Turbine turns a generator which produces electricity 4.Electricity goes to the transformers to produce the correct voltage

18. Efficiency Light bulbs are only 10% efficient. 90% of the energy provided to them is lost as heat You need to know how to read these diagrams

19. Renewable Energy Recall two examples: 1.Solar panels 2.Wind turbines 3.Geothermal 4.Hydroelectricity

20. Power stations which burn carbon fuels (fossil fuels) produce carbon dioxide

21. Nuclear Fuel / Nuclear Fission Changes in the nucleus creates lots of energy Nuclear Fission: a neutron splits a large and unstable nucleus (Uranium) into two smaller parts, roughly equal in size, releasing more neutrons

22. Nuclear Energy The amount of energy contained in nuclear fuel is millions of times the amount of energy contained in a similar mass of chemical fuel such as coal, making nuclear fission a very tempting source of energy.

23. Nuclear Fission creates a chain reaction and these can be dangerous unless they are controlled

24. Controlling Fission Fission heats the coolant which is used to heat water for steam Control rods absorb neutrons These can be moved up and down to control the amount of neutrons escaping the fuel rods

25. Radioactive Waste Is categorised into 3 parts and this relates to it’s disposal methods – high – intermediate – low

26. Health Risks of Background Radiaton Most background radiation is harmless, but it’s not possible to state that it’s “completely safe”. The actual risk is very low because it has low energy If you mentioned to people that some background radiation comes from nuclear power stations they might become quite frightened. This is their perceived risk which they believe to be true.

27. Precautionary Principle Better Safe than Sorry To the people who believe a new technology is not safe, it is up to them to prove that it is. Otherwise society / individual will continue to believe that there is a danger. Examples: – Mobile Phones – Microwaves – Tourists in Space

28. ALARA: As Low As Reasonably Achievable A radiation dose, no matter how small, may have harmful effects. So every reasonable measure should be used to lower it. 1.Time – short exposure 2.Distance – double distance = exposure decreases by a factor of four 3.Shielding - protection

29. Benefits and Risks Can suggest benefits to a known risk and offer reasons for people’s willingness/reluctance to accept the risk of a given activity.

30. Regulations and the Future Scientific research and applications are subject to official regulations and laws (government) Technically feasible: what can be done Values: what should be done Sustainable development: aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations