Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images. Prologue Overview  What Is Psychology?  Psychological science is born  Psychological science develops.

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Presentation transcript:

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images

Prologue Overview  What Is Psychology?  Psychological science is born  Psychological science develops  Contemporary psychology  Psychology’s three main levels of analysis  Psychology’s subfields  Best learning practices: Improve your retention-and your grades!

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Psychological Science Is Born  First laboratory  Fourth century BCE: Aristotle used observation and questioning to understand the body-psyche relationship  Questions were answered through observation (and guesses)

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Psychological Science Is Born  Wilhelm Wundt ( )  Defined psychology as “science of mental life.”  Added two key elements to enhance scientific nature of psychology  Elements included carefully measured observations and experiments

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Structuralism: Titchener  Mentored by Wundt  Relied on “self-report” data  Encouraged introspection, reporting on sensations and other elements of experience, in reaction to stimuli  Used these introspective reports to build a view of the mind’s structure

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Functionalism: William James ( )  Studied human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and asked:  What function might they serve?  How might they have helped our ancestors survive?  Authored Principles of Psychology

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images First women in psychology Mary Whiton Calkins ( )  Became memory researcher and first APA female president  Studied with James but discriminated against and denied PhD

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images First women in psychology Margaret Floy Washburn ( )  Became second APA female president  Wrote The Animal Mind  Studied with Titchener but barred from his experimental psychology organization

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Psychology Science Develops: Behaviorism  Behaviorism  Defined psychology as “scientific study of observable behavior” without reference to mental processes  Became major force in psychology into 1960s  Proponents  John B. Watson (Classical conditioning) and B.F. Skinner (Operant conditioning) dismissed introspection  Watson and Rayner conduced famous “Little Albert” experiments

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Psychology Science Develops  Freudian psychology  Emphasized ways unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect later behavior  Was second major force until 1960s

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Psychology Science Develops  Humanistic psychology  Revived interest in study of mental processes  Focused on ways current environments nurture or limit growth potential and importance of having need for love and acceptance satisfied  Led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Psychology Science Develops  The cognitive revolution occurred in 1960 and focus returned to interest in mental processes  Cognitive psychology scientifically explored ways in which information if perceived, processed, and remembered.  The interdisciplinary field of cognitive neuroscience ties the science of mind (cognitive psychology) and the science of the brain (neuroscience) and focuses on brain activity underlying mental activity

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Modern Definition of Psychology Behavior = any action that can be observed or recorded Mental processes = internal, subjective experienced inferred from behavior Psychology = science of behavior and metal processes

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Contemporary Psychology  The field of psychology is growing and globalizing  Psychology’s pioneers have come from many fields: physiology, philosophy, medicine, and biology.  Advances in psychology also have been made in many countries; Psychology has spread rapidly with 182 member nations in the IUPS  This contributed to growing understanding of biology and experience and fueled the nature-nurture debate.

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Contemporary Psychology  The big nature-nurture question continues.  To what extent are our traits already set in place at birth (our “Nature”)?  And to what extent do our traits develop in response to our environment/ experience (our “Nurture”)? Why do you think these questions are important?

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Contemporary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology and Behavior Genetics Nature Plato: Character and intelligence inherited; some ideas inborn Descartes: Some ideas are intuitive Darwin: Some traits, behaviors, and instincts are part of species; natural selection Nurture Aristotle: Content of mind comes through senses Locke: Mind in blank slate

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Contemporary Psychology Evolutionary psychology: Focus on how humans are alike because of common biology and evolutionary history Behavior genetics: Focus on differences related to differing genes and environments Cross-cultural psychology: Focus on ways culture shapes behavior, but same underlying processes are universal Gender psychology: Focus on differences; males and females are overwhelmingly similar

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Contemporary Psychology  Martin Seligman: Positive psychology  Explores human flourishing  Uses scientific methods to investigate building of good life that engages skill-building and a meaningful life that extends beyond self Courtesy Martin Seligman

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis Behavior or mental process Biological influences: genetic predispositions (genetically influenced traits) genetic mutations natural selection of adaptive traits and behaviors passed down through generations genes responding to the environment Psychological influences: learned fears and other learned expectations emotional responses cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations Social-cultural influences: presence of others cultural, societal, and family expectations peer and other group influences compelling models (such as in the media)

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Psychology’s Subfields  Psychology  Hub scientific discipline (Cacloppo, 2007)  Common quest : Describing and explaining behavior and the mind underlying it  Range of researchers  Biological psychologists  Developmental psychologists  Cognitive psychologists  Personality psychologists  Social psychologists

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Psychology’s Subfields

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Best Learning Practices: Improve Retention and Grades!  Scientific studies show that  Testing boosts retention of material  Acting processing material and retrieving material helps master it (testing effect)  Spaced rehearsal, interspaced with other subjects, is more efficient than cramming  Concept familiarity is not effective enough

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images SQ3R Study Method (McDaniel et al., 2009; Robinson, 1970) Survey Scan/Skim what you are about to read, especially chapter outlines and section heads. Question Ask questions that the text might answer; write guesses. Read Look for the answer to your questions, reading a manageab le amount at a time. Rehearse Recall what you’ve read in your own words. Test yourself with quizzes. Review Recall what you’ve read in your own words. Test yourself with quizzes.

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Four Additional Tips  Distribute study time  Learn to think critically  Process class information actively  Overlearn