MEASUREMENT OF THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER BY AN ELECTRICAL METHOD Energy supplied = (mcΔθ) cal + (mcΔθ) water PRECAUTIONS Ensure that the heating element is covered with water to avoid any loss of heat energy. Ensure that the calorimeter is well insulated to avoid loss of heat energy. Use a sensitive thermometer. Ensure that room temperature is midway between the initial and final temperatures of the water.

MEASUREMENT OF THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER BY THE METHOD OF MIXTURES m c c c Δθ = m w c w Δθ + m cal c c Δθ Precautions Transfer the copper quickly to reduce heat loss. Ensure that the calorimeter is well insulated to avoid loss of heat energy. Use a sensitive thermometer. Energy lost by copper rivets = energy gained by the water + the copper calorimeter

MEASUREMENT OF THE SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE (mcΔθ)cal + (mcΔθ)water = (ml)ice + (mcΔθ)melted ice PRECAUTIONS Ensure that the ice is dried. Use warmed water at the start of the experiment to reduce overll heat loss. This also helps the ice to melt more quickly speeding up the expt. Use a well insulated calorimeter to avoid loss or gain of heat to the surroundings.

MEASUREMENT OF THE SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORISATION OF WATER ml steam + mcΔθ condensed_steam = mcΔθ cal + mcΔθ water PRECAUTIONS: Ensure that only steam (not water) enters the water in the calorimeter. Use a "steam trap“. If the water in the calorimeter is initially cooled to10 °C below room temperature and then heated to 10 °C above room temperature the heat gains and heat losses approximately cancel each other out. Use a well insulated calorimeter to avoid loss or gain of heat to the surroundings

To Calibrate a mercury thermometer PRECAUTIONS Heat the water very slowly so that it is easy to take temperature and length readings simultaneously. Have your eye level with the liquid columns when taking temperature and length readings to avoid parallax error. Measure the length of the mercury column and the temperature. Plot a graph of temperature against length.