Language and Technology LOs: to be able to identify some capabilities and limitations on communications afforded by technology; to be able to identify and comment on the typical features of telephone conversations. Possibilities (in what ways can we communicate using technology that we can’t do without it?) Limitations (in what ways can we communicate without technology that we can’t do with it?)

How does technology mimic non- technological/older forms of communication? In genteel society, as depicted, for example, in Jane Austen's novels, there has for some time been a practice of one's being ready to receive visitors, should they call, by being "at home" to them. The sending of invitations that indicate a time when the sender will be "at home" to the recipient, who is expected to reply, complements this. Interestingly, while the invitation is written in English, the acronym requesting a response derives from French (RSVP meaning répondez s'il vous plaît). Sometimes a person would be literally in his or her home, but not "at home" to visitors - not willing, that is, to allow them to visit. An 18th century gentleman could visit too frequently, and start to find his intended hosts to be not "at home" to him. Users of instant messenger programs (such as ICQ,MSN/Windows Messenger and Yahoo Instant Messenger) use a similar etiquette. In the Yahoo client program, for example, one can be simply "Available", have "Stepped out" (no indication of when one will return), be "Out to lunch" (the intention here is literal, not metaphorical), say one will "Be right back" or display any other status message of the user's own devising. The point here is that, just like Jane Austen's gentlefolk, the user is advertising to all his or her chosen acquaintances, a readiness to receive a digital visit. ICQMSN/Windows MessengerYahoo Instant Messenger The user of the Instant Messenger can display a message such as "busy", accompanied by an image resembling a "no entry" sign as used on some road systems. Or he or she can use the messenger to see other users who are "available", while appearing to be offline, by choosing the "invisible" status. Instant Messenger could allow the user to "visit" other people excessively - but in use, it has a self-adjusting tendency (the user learns when other people wish to talk or not). Unlike the older etiquette, however, the Instant Messenger does not have the facility to show the user as being "at home" to some people but not to others.

How does technology differ from non- technological/older forms of communication? The inventor and developer intend them to make some existing or established action more effective and powerful, but The end users find different actions that they perform even more effectively. An example would be the mobile phone. This was developed to provide the benefits of voice telephony without the restrictions of physical location from which landline telephones suffer. In developing the physical device, the inventors used liquid crystal display technology to give the user assistance, for example in storing numbers and selecting people to call, and for sending written messages (i.e. texts).

Technology universalises communication – brings power to the people The relative affordability of information and communication technology means that it brings power to the people. In earlier times various technologies were so expensive and conspicuous that the state could regulate their availability (whether for its own purposes, or for sale to wealthy businesses and individuals). That still happens in some ways, as national governments sell licences to providers of services and portion out the available wavelengths for radio and television broadcasts. Internet technologies allow great scope to the individual to write or speak, publish or broadcast, read or listen. In many cases other people and organizations may try to restrict that scope. The restriction may come from – a national government (as in China's regulation of Internet cafés, and blocking of some Web sites), – an employer (as in blocking of some technologies and Web sites, or enforcement of appropriate use policies at work), or – a parent (as in controls on children's use of Internet technologies). In spite of all of such restrictions, these technologies do generally promote change and allow individual expression in ways, and to an extent, that were not possible previously.

Technology universalises communication – brings power to the people Broadcasters and publishers are agents of change to an extent, as they allow new forms and new uses onto the airwaves and into print. But they also are agents of stability (or conservatism, depending on your attitude), in continuing to use forms that are regarded as standard in relatively formal contexts. We can exemplify this by noting that popular and informal speech may be heard on talk radio and phone-ins or on some youth programming on television, but that mainstream radio and TV news bulletins or documentary programmes use varieties of English that change more slowly. For many ICT texts, there is no explicit requirement to use any given conventions. Ideas of what is appropriate may be determined by an emerging popular consensus, but are no longer regulated at the outset by commercial publishers, editors and readers, as they have been in the past for most print texts.

Looking at a particular technological medium - telephony Do you find yourself, or have you observed other people, doing any of these things while speaking on the telephone? – Making gestures, even though the other participant in a conversation cannot see these; – changing one's accent, as compared with face-to- face conversation (for example accommodating the other person's accent more markedly); – experiencing greater (or reduced) self- consciousness or embarrassment, compared to face-to-face communication. Why do you think this is the case? Key term: dyadic One-to-one interactions. Despite the possibility of conference calling, telephony generally encourages dyadic interactions.

Applying the language levels to phone conversations in general: Language Level What do we expect? Pragmatics Not a face-to-face interaction: shared knowledge? More face/politeness strategies? More convergence? Grammar Do people use standard grammar while on the phone? More or less than in face-to- face discussions? Phonology Does technology influence such things as suprasegmental features of speech (prosody)? Are we more or less comfortable with pauses and silence than in face-to-face conversation? Do we try to fill silences or even ask the other person questions about them? ("Are you still there/all right?") Discourse structure What turn-taking structures/indicators might be in place? What are the ‘unwritten rules’ of a phone conversation discourse structure? What non-verbal features might you expect to see?

Emanuel Schegloff (1986) Summons/answer: opening the channel of communication) Identification (and/or recognition): who is speaking? A greeting sequence: initiating a shared space ‘how are you sequences: strengthening the shared space Schegloff identifies this ‘canonical sequence’ or ‘pattern’ at the beginning of telephone conversations. Looking at the telephone conversation on the next page, how far can you apply Schegloff’s model? What issues does it raise?

Applying/evaluating Schegloff’s model What is the relative power/intimacy status of the speakers? How might gender affect their talk? What cultural expectations are there in place? How might mobile phones/Skype have made an impact on what Schegloff identified (in the mid 80s!)? Johnhello SteveJohn, it’s Steve Joh (.) hi (.) hi how are you doing? Sgood thanks (.) you? Jyeah not bad just recovering from this cold think you know Sit‘s all around Jyeah we’re all sniffing at the mo S[laughs] yeah? Jso what’s happening next week?

Adapted from Norman & Shortis (2006) Looking further at telephone discourse structure Identification routines Receiver speaks first, although the caller initiates the call How might the closeness of the relationship affect this part of the routine? Call validation routines Caller will give a reason for their call, or may give an apology or permissive enquiry (e.g. ‘have I caught you at a bad time?’) Phatic elements As with face-to-face talk – before the main ‘business’ of the call Main issuesThe caller will move towards the main point of the call Closing sequences Wind down, perhaps with a repetition or summary of what has been discussed or agreed. Call termination routines Politeness markers; restatement of any action or arrangement arising from the call; at least one exchange of ‘bye’ or similar, then the call is terminated.

Plenary Quick summary (on Padlet) – what are some of the main differences between face-to-face and phone conversations?on Padlet

Homework Analyse the two phone call transcripts (English Language for AQA B p.139) in the style of a Paper 1 Question 1 and 2 response. – Analyse how Transcript 1 uses language to create meanings and representations. – Analyse how Transcript 2 uses language to create meanings and representations. Remember the AOs for this question: – AO1: Apply appropriate methods of language analysis, using associated terminology and coherent written expression (10 marks) – AO3: Analyse and evaluate how contextual factors and language features are associated with the construction of meaning in the texts (15 marks)