Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Chapter Two Sex Research and Theory

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Overview of Scientific Research Scientific research involves methods of collecting and analyzing empirical evidence, or data that can be observed. Scientific knowledge is different from common sense, intuition, tradition, and authority in that it is supported by observable evidence.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 The Interdisciplinary Nature of Sexology Biosexology Study of the biological aspects of sexuality Psychosexology Area of sexology focused on how psychological processes influence and are influenced by sexual development and behavior Sociosexology Aspect of sexology that is concerned with how social and cultural forces influence and are influenced by sexual attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Theories of Sexuality Biological Theories Psychological Theories Sociological Theories

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Biological Theories Physiological theories Theories that describe and explain how physiological processes affect and are affected by sexual behavior Evolutionary/Sociobiological Theories Theories that explain human sexual behavior and sexual anatomy on the basis of human evolution

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Psychological Theories - 1 Psychoanalytic theory Freud’s theory emphasizes the role of unconscious processes in one’s life. Classical conditioning Behavior modification technique in which an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus are linked to elicit a desired response. Operant learning theory An explanation of human behavior that emphasizes that the consequences of a behavior influence whether or not that behavior will occur in the future.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Psychological Theories - 2 Social learning theory A theory that emphasizes the process of learning through observation and imitation. Cognitive/affective theories As related to sexuality, these theories emphasize the role of thought processes and emotions in sexual behavior.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Sociological Theories - 1 Symbolic interaction theory A theory that focuses on how meanings, labels, and definitions learned through interaction affect one’s attitudes, self-concept, and behavior. Structural-functional theory A theory that views society as a system of interrelated parts that influence each other and work together to achieve social stability. Conflict theory A theory that views society as consisting of different parts competing for power and resources.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Sociological Theories - 2 Feminist theories Perspectives that analyze discrepancies in equality between men and women, and how these imbalances affect sexuality, studies in sexuality, and sexual health-care delivery. Systems theory Theory that emphasizes the interpersonal and relationship aspects of sexuality.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Eclectic View of Human Sexuality Eclectic view View that recognizes the contribution of multiple perspectives to the understanding of sexuality “We cannot expect to understand human sexuality unless we consider both biology and culture... and the interface between them as it affects the individual, the dyad, and the group.” John Bancroft

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Conducting Sex Research: A Step-by-Step Process

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Identifying a Research Question The framing of research questions may be affected by the social and political context of the times. Alfred C. Kinsey conducted the first large survey study of human sexuality, the results of which he published in Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Reviewing the Literature Reviewing the literature enables researchers to discover what other researchers have already learned about a topic, provides researchers with ideas about new research questions, and suggests ways to conduct research. Journals publishing research on human sexuality include The Journal of Sex Research, Archives of Sexual Behavior, Journal of Homosexuality, Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, Family Planning Perspectives, Psychology of Human Sexuality, and many others.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Formulating a Hypothesis and Operationalizing Variables - 1 Hypothesis A tentative and testable proposal or an educated guess about the outcome of a research study. Variable Any measurable event or characteristic that varies or is subject to change. Dependent variable Variable that is measured to assess what, if any, effect the independent variable has on it. Independent variable The variable that is presumed to cause or influence the dependent variable.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Formulating a Hypothesis and Operationalizing Variables - 2 Operationalize Defining how a variable will be measured Operational definition Working definition; how a variable is defined in a particular study

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Methods of Data Collection After identifying a research question, reviewing the literature, formulating a hypothesis, and operationalizing variables, researchers collect data. Methods of data collection include:  Experimental Research  Survey Research  Field Research  Direct Laboratory Observations  Case Studies  Historical Research

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Experimental Research Research methodology that involves manipulating the independent variable to determine how it affects the dependent variable. Strength: provides information on causal relationships; that is, it shows how one variable affects another. Weakness: experiments are often conducted on small samples, usually in artificial laboratory settings. Therefore, the findings may not be generalizable to other people in natural settings.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Survey Research Research that involves eliciting information from respondents using questions (Interviews, questionnaires, new technologies for research). Sample A portion of the population that the researcher studies and attempts to make inferences about the whole population. Representative sample A sample the researcher studies that is representative of the population from which it is taken.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Personal Choices: Participating in Sex Research as a Subject? Individuals who participate in sexuality research benefit the larger society. As a student at a college or university, you may be asked to complete a questionnaire or participate in an interview as part of a sex research project being conducted by a professor or graduate student. Before deciding whether to participate in the study, you may want to be sure that the research follows established ethical guidelines for research with human participants.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Field Research Field research Method of data collection that involves observing and studying social behaviors in settings in which they occur naturally. Participant observation The researcher participates in the phenomenon being studied to obtain an insider’s perspective of the people and/or behavior being observed. Nonparticipant observation The investigators observe the phenomenon being studied, but do not actively participate in the group or the activity.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Direct Laboratory Observations Direct laboratory observation In human sexuality research, actually observing individuals engage in sexual behavior. One problem with laboratory observation research is the use of volunteers. Are those who volunteer to participate in such research similar to those who do not? Volunteer samples may not be representative of the group from which they are recruited, and caution should be used in making generalizations based on the findings.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Case Studies Method involves conducting an in-depth, detailed analysis of an individual, group, relationship, or event. Case studies are valuable in providing detailed qualitative information about the experiences of individuals and groups. The main disadvantage of the case study method is that findings based on small sample size (in some cases a sample size of one) are not necessarily generalizable.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Historical Research Historical research involves investigating sexuality and sexual issues through the study of historical documents. Data sources used in conducting historical research include newspapers, magazines, letters, literature (such as novels and poetry), diaries, medical texts and popular health manuals, court records, hospital records, prison records, and official (government) statistics on such topics as birth rates, arrest and conviction rates, sexually transmittable diseases (STDs), and nonmarital pregnancies.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Levels of Data Analysis Description Correlation Causation

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Description Descriptive research Qualitative or quantitative research that describes sexual processes, behaviors, and attitudes, as well as the people who experience them Qualitative descriptions Verbal narratives that describe details and nuances of sexual phenomena Quantitative descriptions Numerical representations of sexual phenomena

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Correlation Statistical index that represents the degree of relationship between two variables Positive correlation Relationship between two variables that exists when both variables change in the same direction Negative correlation Relationship between two variables that exists when the variables change in opposite directions

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Causation To demonstrate causality, three conditions must be met:  First, the research must demonstrate that variable A is correlated with variable B.  Second, the researcher must demonstrate that the presumed cause (variable A) occurs or changes prior to the presumed effect (variable B).  Third, the researcher must demonstrate that the observed correlation is nonspurious.

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004 Interpretation and Discussion Following data analysis, the researcher evaluates and interprets the results and their implications. The researcher may qualify the results, draw inferences from them, assess the theoretical implications, and discuss possible applications. Publishing results of sexuality surveys may accomplish more than simply reporting on trends; it may help shape them.