Argumentation A review of argument and persuasion

The Elements of Argument Assertion or Proposition: This is the thesis statement. You may be defending/attacking a position, providing a solution, recommending a change, or challenging a belief. Break down the central assertion into sub claims, each one supported by evidence. Raise significant opposing argument and dispense with them, again using supporting evidence. Be sure your argument is clear and logical and pushes toward the conclusion.

Appeals to Readers Ethical (Pathos) Emotional (Ethos) Rational (Logos)

Ethical Appeal Not explicit – it should be woven within your entire paper It is the reasonableness of your argument via your evidence and tone Your reader should see you as thinking logically and fairly about a subject Strong evidence establishes your credibility. Sincere, reasonable tone demonstrates your balance and goodwill (avoid being overly critical, emotional, etc.)

Emotional Appeal Aims for the heart – for the beliefs, values, and feelings deeply embedded in the reader The writer attempts to tap into the readers feelings in order to 1. heighten the responsiveness of readers 2. inspires readers to new beliefs 3. to compel readers to act 4. to assure readers that their values remain unchallenged

Emotional Appeal requires care The appeal must be directed at the audience’s actual beliefs and feelings The writer should NOT be overly passionate. Your reader will react with more favor if you write with fairness. The appeal must be appropriate to the subject and the argument.

Rational Appeal Addresses your readers rational faculties via inductive and deductive reasoning. Follows natural processes of deductive and inductive reasoning

Rational Appeal – Inductive Reasoning Moves from specific to general Begins with evidence which leads to the conclusion Ex. Begin with the facts about a persons wild behavior: parties, drugs, etc. to build the conclusion that his recklessness led to his death.

Rational Appeal – Inductive Reasoning Evidence for induction 1. Facts: statistics or other hard data from a reliable source 2. Expert opinions from those considered an expert on a subject. 3. Examples illustrating the evidence

Rational Appeal – Deductive Reasoning Moves from general to specific Begins with the generalization and then applies it to new situations in order to draw a conclusion about the new situation

Deductive Reasoning - Syllogism A form of deductive reasoning based on a three part outline: major premise, minor premise, and conclusion. Example: Major Premise: All girls become women. Minor Premise: Sarah is a girl. Conclusion: Therefore Sarah will become a woman.

Syllogisms cont. A syllogism can be valid without being true. Ex. All females have two eyes. Brett has two eyes. Therefore, Brett is a female. The conclusion is valid because Brett has two eyes. But the conclusion is not true because Brett is a male.

Sample Fallacies Hasty Generalization: an inductive conclusion that leaps to include all instances when at best only some instances provide any evidence. Ex. 1. African Americans are great athletes. 2. Blondes are airheads.

Fallacies Inappropriate emotional appeals and flaws in reasoning Trap you as you construct your argument

Sample Fallacies Oversimplification: inductive conclusion that ignores complexities of evidence that, if heeded weaken the conclusion or suggest an entirely different conclusion. Ex. The teacher left because the students were so unruly.

Sample Fallacies Begging the question: assuming a conclusion in the statement of a premise, and thus begging readers to accept the conclusion before it is proved. Ex. We can trust the teacher not to mistreat the students, because she is a loving person. The sentence asserts in a circular fashion that the teacher is not unloving because she is loving, but this is the question that needs addressing.

Sample Fallacies Ignoring the question: introducing an issue that shifts the argument away from the real issue. Ex. Offering an emotional appeal as a premise in a logical argument. The mayor was used badly by people he loved and trusted, so we should not blame him for the corruption in his administration.

Sample Fallacies Ad hominem: ignoring the question by attacking the opponents instead of the argument. Ex. Daniel is a liar, therefore we should not believe a word that he says nor should we give him a chance to lead.

Sample Fallacies Either-or: requiring that readers choose between two interpretations or actions when in fact the choices are more numerous. Ex. Either we accept the war or we will become a terrorist run state.

Sample Fallacies Non sequitur: A conclusion derived illogically or erroneously from stated or implied premises. Ex. Young children are too immature to comprehend death, so they should not be taught about it. This sentence implies one of two meaning, both of them questionable.

Sample Fallacies Post hoc: assuming that because one things preceded another, it must have caused the other. Ex. After Ryan walked into the classroom, Joe fainted. Many things could have caused Joe to faint, including a major drop in his blood pressure. It does not follow that Ryan’s entrance (and that alone) caused Joe to faint.

Argumentation on AP Exam One essay question is a statement or quote and then students are asked to defend, challenge, or qualify the statement based on evidence from readings or observation. The essay is scored not only on the evidence you provide, but on your writing style as well.

Defend, Challenge, Qualify Defend: You agree with the statement of the author. Use examples from literature and life to support your statement. Challenge: You do not agree with the statement and you try to persuade the reader to agree with your position Qualify: You assert that the statement is valid in some instances or to a certain point and then it can should be questioned.

Essay Assignment Choose a controversial topic to research Have your topic approved by Mrs. Donalson – Note: I will not approve papers on abortion, religion, or the death penalty as these are overdone and tend to rely on emotional appeal. Decide if you will defend or challenge the common rational for this argument. In a well written essay defend or challenge one side of the argument using Rational and Ethical appeal. While you may use some emotional appeal, your primary arguments should be rational or ethical based appeals.

Essay Assignment cont. Notice you have not been given the option to qualify. Length – 3-4 pages in MLA format with 3 sources appropriately documented. Sources should be reliable and credible. Use only one internet based source – This is not the essay assignment that Weather Essay Winners are exempt from completing. (You are exempt from The Sun Also Rises Essay.)

Reminders Avoid contractions, misspelled words, shift in point-of-view, and over use of “to be” verbs. Oh, and passive voice should be omitted in most cases. I know this goes without saying, but plagiarism is an automatic F.

I will be looking for Sentences that are mature. Go beyond the simple sentence. Combine one sentence with a semi-colon. Varied sentence structure. Advanced diction- Omit words such as, good, great, and a lot. Try for a paper with no clichés or overused phrases. Beware of the Thesaurus it will give you synonyms, but it does not account for connotation. A definite form of argumentation.

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