Chapter 16 Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth: The Scientific Revolution and the Emergence of Modern Science

Background to the Scientific Revolution Medieval Science Renaissance Humanists Contradictions of Aristotle and Galen Renaissance artists and their impact on scientific study Close Observation of Nature Perspective and Anatomical Proportions Technological Innovations Mathematics Hermetic Magic Alchemy

Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy Aristotle, Claudius Ptolemy and Christian Theology Geocentric Universe Ten Spheres surrounded the Earth Christianized Ptolemaic Universe Copernicus Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543) On The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres Heliocentric Universe Creates doubt about the Ptolemaic system

A Revolution in Astronomy, Continued Tycho Brahe Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630) Interest in Hermetic thought and Mathematical magic “Music of the Spheres” Laws of Planetary Motion Discredits Ptolemaic System Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) The Telescope The Starry Messenger Condemned by the Church Scientific leadership passes to England, France and the Netherlands

Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge University Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1684 – 1686): The Principia Three Laws of Motions Gravity World seen in mechanistic terms God

Advances in Medicine Medieval Medicine dominated by Galen Paracelsus Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 1564) On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543) Dissection of a human body Corrects Galen’s errors William Harvey On the Motion of the Heart and Blood (1628) Circulation of the blood

Women in of Modern Science New Opportunities for Women Largely informal education Margaret Cavendish (1623 – 1673) Observations upon Experimental Philosophy Grounds of Natural Philosophy Attacked rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge Maria Sibylla Merian German Women 1 of 7 German astronomers was a woman Maria Winkelmann (1670 – 1720) Discovered comet Rejected for a post by the Berlin Academy

Debate over the nature of women Women portrayed as inherently base, prone to vice, easily swayed, and “sexually insatiable” Women joined debate in the 17th century and reject this view Science used to “perpetrate old stereotypes about women” Scientific revolution reaffirmed traditional ideas about women’s nature

Toward a New Earth: Descartes, Rationalism, and a New View of Humankind Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) Discourse on Method (1637) “I think, therefore I am.” Separation of mind and matter Cartesian Dualism Father of modern rationalism

The Spread of Scientific Knowledge The Scientific Method Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626) Rejects Copernicus and Kepler; Misunderstands Galileo The Great Instauration (The Great Restoration) Correct Scientific Method built on inductive principles Proceed from the particular to the general Experimentation Control and domination of nature Descartes Deduction and mathematical logic Newton Unites Bacon’s empiricism and Descartes rationalism

The Scientific Societies English Royal Society Informal meetings at London and Oxford Received formal charter in 1662 from Charles II French Royal Academy Informal meetings in Paris Formally recognized by Louis XIV (1666) Societies recognized practical value of scientific research Both focus on theoretical work in mechanics and astronomy

Science and Society People recognized Science’s rational superiority Science offered new ways to exploit resources for profit

Science and Religion in the Seventeenth Century Conflict between Science and Religion Scientific beliefs triumph Religious beliefs suffer Benedict de Spinoza Philosophy of pantheism Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662) Sought to keep science and religion united Mystical vision (1654) Pensées (Thoughts) Sought to convert rationalists to Christianity Christianity not contrary to reason Reason had limits

Chapter 17 The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment in Europe ©2003 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.

The Enlightenment Paths to Enlightenment “Dare to know” – Immanual Kant Scientific method to understand life Popularization of Science Bernard de Fontenelle ( ), Plurality of Worlds A New Skepticism Attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism Skepticism about religion and growing secularization The Impact of Travel Literature Travel books became very popular Captain James Cook Literature on China

The Legacy of Locke & Newton Newton reasoning could discover natural laws that govern politics, economics justice, religion, and the arts Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding knowledge derived from the environment denied Descartes’ belief in innate ideas

The Philosophes and their Ideas Came from all walks of life Paris was the “capital” Desire to change the world Call for a spirit of rational criticism 3 French Giants: Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot

Montesquieu and Political Thought Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu ( ) Persian Letters, 1721 Attacks traditional religion, advocacy of religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, use of reason The Spirit of the Laws, 1748; comparative study of government

Voltaire and the Enlightenment Francois-Marie Arouet, Voltaire ( ) Criticism of traditional religion Treatise on Toleration, 1763 Deism

Diderot and the Encyclopedia Denis Diderot ( ) Encyclopedia, 28 volumes Attacked religious superstition and advocated toleration Lowered price helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment

Toward a New “Science of Man” David Hume Physiocrats and Adam Smith founders of modern economics François Quesnay ( ) Leader of the Physiocrat – natural economic laws Rejection of mercantilism Supply and demand

Adam Smith & Laissez-Faire Economics Adam Smith ( ) The Wealth of Nations, 1776 Attack on mercantilism Advocate of free trade Government has only three basic functions Protect society from invasion Defend individuals from injustice and oppression Keep up public works

The Later Enlightenment Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( ) Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind; Preservation of private property had enslaved Social Contract, 1762; Tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority Concept of General Will Emile, 1762; important work on education

The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment Agree that the nature of women make them inferior There were some exceptions, for example Diderot Mary Astell ( ) A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, 1697 Better education and equality in marriage Mary Wollstonecraft Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792 Subjection of women by men wrong

Social Environment of the Philosophes Salons The influence of women Marie-Thérèse de Geoffrin ( ) Marquise du Deffand ( ) Other gathering places

Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature Rococo Art Characteristics Antoine Watteau ( ) Fragility and transitory nature of pleasure, love, and life Baroque-Rococo architectural style Balthasar Neumann ( ) Secular and spiritual interchangeable Baroque Music Johann Sebastian Bach ( ) George Frederick Handel ( ) Franz Joseph Haydn ( ) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ( )

Development of the Novel Decisive time in the development of the novel Samuel Richardson Virtue Rewarded Henry Fielding The History of Tom Jones

The High Culture of the Eighteenth Century Characteristics Increased readership and publishing Development of magazines and newspapers for the general public Joseph Addison and Richard Steele’s Spectator Female Spectator Education and Universities

Crime and Punishment Punishment in the eighteenth century Cesare Beccaria ( ), On Crimes and Punishments Punishment should serve only as deterrent Punishment moved away from spectacle towards rehabilitation

World of Medicine University of Leiden Royal College of Physicians Barber-surgeons Apothecaries, midwives, and faith healers Hospital conditions

Popular Culture Festivals, carnivals, and fairs Gathering places Taverns and Alcohol The gap between high culture and popular culture Literacy and Primary Education Spread of literacy State-supported primary schools Hannah More

Religion and the Churches The Catholic and Protestant Churches were conservative Church-State relations Community activities of the churches Toleration and Religious Minorities Toleration and the Jews Experiences of Ashkenazic Jews Experiences of Sephardic Jews Some Enlightenment thinkers favored acceptance of the Jews Joseph II Limited reforms toward the Jews

Religious Population in Eighteenth- Century Europe ©2003 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Popular Religion in the Eighteenth Century Catholic Piety Protestant Revivalism John Wesley ( ) Methodist societies Brought the Gospel to the people