WHS AP Psychology Unit 2: Memory (Cognition) Essential Task 2-2: Outline principles that help improve memory functioning at each stage: encoding - attention, chunking, serial positioning effect, deep versus shallow processing, and rote rehearsal storage - decay theory, elaborative rehearsal, spacing effect, method of loci, and link method retrieval - retroactive interference, proactive interference

Attention All the rest External Stimuli Sensory Registers gone Short Term Memory Long Term Memory Retrieval 1. Encoding 3. Retrieval 2. Storage Information Processing Model We are here

Essential Task 2-2: Improving Encoding –attentionattention –chunkingchunking –serial positioning effectserial positioning effect –Schemata and HierarchySchemataHierarchy –deep versus shallow processingdeep versus shallow processing Improving storage –decay theorydecay theory –spacing effectspacing effect –Rote rehearsal vs. elaborative rehearsalRote rehearsal elaborative rehearsal –Mnemonics like method of loci and link methodmethod of loci link method Retrieval –Retrieval Cues and PrimingRetrieval Cues and Priming –Situational factorsSituational factors –State dependentState dependent –Allow for Parallel ProcessingParallel Processing –Overcoming retroactive interferenceretroactive interference –Overcoming proactive interferenceproactive interference Outline

Improving Encoding Outline

Attention? Pay Attention You can consciously decide to pay attention to something. If you don’t pay attention it won’t enter your STM and never get to your IPM. Outline

Chunking The grouping of information into meaningful units for easier handling by short term memory. M-S-N-N-A-S-A-C-I-A-C-O-M Or MSN NASA CIA COM Outline

Conduct Inclusive Memory Activity Now

Serial Position Effect People tend to recall the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list Demonstrates how short- and long- term memory work together Primacy effect reflects long-term memory Recency effect reflects short-term memory Outline

Serial Position Effect Outline

Schemata A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience Incoming information is fit with existing schemata –(concept maps) Schemata can also influence the amount of attention paid to a given event Reconstruction –Memories can be altered with each retrieval –We do this to keep the schemata of our self and our environment Outline

Hierarchy Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.

Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy

Conduct Processing Activity Now Outline

Deep Versus Shallow Processing Deep Processing analyzes meaning Shallow processing does not Outline

Improving Storage Outline

Decay Theory The decay theory argues that the passage of time causes forgetting. The longer information is not accessed, increases the chances of forgetting it. Outline

Spacing Effect Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than practicing all at once. You can memorize a poem a lot easier if you break it down into 5 parts over 5 days instead of all at once.

Maintaining Long-Term Memory Rote rehearsal –Repetition can result in long-term memory –Only effective if there is intent to learn material –Example: What does a penny look like? Outline

Maintaining Long-Term Memory Elaborative rehearsal –Process of relating new information to information already stored in memory –Meaning is assigned to new information and then linked to as much existing knowledge as possible –Hence Psych Immersions Outline

Link Method First imagine a silly, memorable image that represents the type of list you want to remember. Also include in this image the first item on the list (see below for example). This image is your header for the list. Think of another silly, memorable image that links the first item on the list to the second item and so on. Outline

Method of Loci In this technique the subject memorizes the layout of some building, or the arrangement of shops on a street, or any geographical entity which is composed of a number of discrete loci. When desiring to remember a set of items the subject literally 'walks' through these loci and commits an item to each one by forming an image between the item and any distinguishing feature of that locus. Outline

Improving Retrieval Outline

Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. Fire Truck truck red fire heat smoke smell water hose

Priming To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

Where and when matters Situational factors –Recall of information is better if environment is the same as when information was learned State-dependent memory –Recall of information is better if person is in the same physiological state as when information was learned

Parallel Processing Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon is when you can almost recall something, but can’t quite get it. If you leave it your brain will continue to work on this problem eventually surfacing with the answer. Thus you later yell out the name of the actor and everyone looks at you like you are odd.

Interference Retroactive interference –Occurs when new information interferes with information already in memory –Retro means old –In this term the old information is being tested –Thus the new information is doing the interference. Outline

Try remembering the following number Ok that was easy because nothing interfered with you. Outline

Now let’s try some interference First, consistent with cognitive dissonance theories, we are able to induce optimism or pessimism with the initial (random) wage assignment. With respect to the first-stage task, this implies that we can successfully manipulate one’s ability-beliefs in the lab. Secondly, subjects who received this low piece-rate in stage one were willing to accept significantly lower offers in a second-stage ultimatum game. This finding is striking, demonstrating the presence of both belief manipulation and spillovers of those beliefs into behavioral outcomes in an unrelated and distinct experimental environment. Outline

Try remembering the following number Outline

Retro-active Interference The last two were examples of retro- active interference In each one, it was the OLD (retro) information that was being tested. The last trial was the hardest because it overloaded your modality. What type of music should you listen to when you write an essay? Outline

Retroactive Interference Sleep helps prevent retroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to better recall. Outline

Interference Proactive interference –This is when new information is being tested. –The old information already in your LTM interferes. –It is tough to teach an experienced show dog new tricks. –Psychologists have found that recall of later items can be improved by making them distinctive from early items. For example, people being fed groups of numbers to remember did much better when they were suddenly fed a group of words instead. This is called release from proactive interference Outline

I need a volunteer that knows their colors. Don ’ t read the words, just say the colors they ’ re printed in and as fast as you can This is called the stroop effect Outline

Red Yellow Green Blue Red Blue Yellow Green Blue Red

Interference When you look at the words you see both its color and meaning. When they are in conflict you must make a choice Experience has taught you that word meaning is more important than color so you retrieve that information. You are not always in complete control of what you pay attention to. Outline

Schemata A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience Incoming information is fit with existing schemata Schemata can also influence the amount of attention paid to a given event Reconstruction –Memories can be altered with each retrieval –We do this to keep the schemata of our self and our environment Outline