Discussion What might have been the reaction of the British people to the passage of the Reform Bill? Many British people— particularly newly enfranchised men and workers in large cities—were probably delighted at the bill's passage.

Discussion How did Napoleon III attempt to distract people from their loss of freedom? He embarked on public works projects that included the construction of railroads, harbors, roads, and canals, as well as the rebuilding of the city of Paris.

Background The French poet and novelist Victor Hugo (1802–1885) was a staunch republican who opposed the Second Empire of Napoleon III. As the emperor's rule became more authoritarian, Hugo went into exile, fleeing to Brussels, Belgium. While in exile, Hugo's writings were devoted to satirizing the rule of the emperor in such works as Napoléon le Petit. Hugo's most famous work of the time, perhaps, is Les Misérables, the story of a convict who has been imprisoned for 19 years for stealing a loaf of bread. The novel was an instant success, winning Hugo popularity at home as well as abroad. Hugo remained in exile until 1870, when a republic was reestablished in France.

Discussion How do you think members of Austria's many other nationalities felt about the compromise? They were probably dissatisfied, because the compromise did not grant concessions to groups other than the Hungarians.

Discussion What were some of the contributing factors in the division of the nation preceding the war? Differences over federal versus state authority and differences over slavery