Input and Interaction and Second Language Acquisition by Riyana Dewi Riana Eka Budiastuti Inti Englishtina

INTRODUCTION Three major theoretical positions: Behaviourist position “Say what I say” Innatist/mentalist position “It’s all in your mind” Interactionist position “What do you mean?”

Behaviourist  The Behaviourist framework holds that imitation (and reinforcement) of language input is the primary mechanism in language acquisition. Without input, learning cannot occur.  Input is comprised of stimuli and feedback. With the stimuli, the person speaking to the learner models specific linguistic forms and patterns which learner internalizes by imitating them.  Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1957) Verbal Behaviour Speech as observable behaviour LA1 = acquisition of a set of behaviours in a process of imitation and habit formation Stimulus response reinforcement

Mentalist Learners are equipped with innate knowledge of the possible forms that any single language can take, and use the information supplied by the input to arrive at the forms that apply in the case of the L2 they are trying to learn. In 1959: Noam Chomsky’s review of Skinner’s Verbal Behaviour, that innate abilities; biologically programmed for language and talking is like walking Input vs Intake (Corder, 1967)  Input : what is available to the learner, what goes in one ear and out of the other.  Intake : what is actually interalized; what is integrated into the current interlanguage system.

The innatist/mentalist position: “It‘s all in your mind.” Language Acquisition Device / Universal Grammar contains all and only the principles universal to all human languages. Samples of the language serve as a trigger to activate the LAD / UG Child then matches innate knowledge to the structures of the particular language in the environment  acquisition LAD works successfully only if stimulated at the right time.

Interactionist Two different types of theory: 1.Cognitive interactionist theories, acquisition is seen as a product of the complex interaction of the linguistic environment and the learner’s internal mechanism, with neither viewed as primary. Language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the uniquely human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. 2.Interaction in social orientation or verbal interaction is a crucial importance for language learning as it helps to make the ‘facts’ of the L2 salient to the learner. Crucial element is the conversational give-and-take between children and adults.

The characteristics of input to language learners Input studies have focused on two issues. a.Input text : native-speaker usage b.Input discourse : the description of modified input  Caretaker talk  Foreigner talk a. ungrammatical input modifications b. grammatical input modifications c. interactional modifications d. discourse structure (discourse management and discourse repair) e. the function of FT  Interlanguage talk

Input text : native-speaker usage  language use is both communication and cognitive activity  language is simultaneously a means of communication and tool for thinking  language is both process and product

Caretaker talk  Caretaker talk is derived as people who interact with young children often intuitively modify their language. Adults choose simpler sentences and vocabulary, repeat themselves, and paraphrase what children say. This simplified (modified) input is thought to help with language acquisition, though children may receive it from a variety of sources, including older siblings.  The caretaker’s use of inverted yes-no questions (Have you been sleeping?) and children’s development of verbal auxiliaries in L1 English  Caretakers’ speech is derived primarily from the communicative goal of engaging in conversation with a linguistically and cognitively less competent partner, and sustaining and directing attention, not teaching.

Foreigner talk Foreigner talk: language directed towards L2 learners. In general, foreigner talk adjustments reveal speech patterns that would not ordinarily be used in conversation with NSs.  Features: Slow speech rate High frequency vocabulary Short and simple sentences Offering corrections  Functions: Helpful for understanding But may not lead to learning –Simplification resulting from discourse elaboration/modification are more likely to aid comprehension than simplification at the linguistic level –Greater amount of semantic detail available in an elaborated text that allows learners to make inferences from the text.

Foreigner talk Phonology Release final stops No reduced vowels Fewer contractions Longer pauses Vocabulary High frequency vocabulary Less slang and idioms Overt definitions Use of gestures and pictures Syntax Short, simple sentences and topic fronting Repetition and restatement New information at the end of the sentences The NS repeats of reformulates the NSS’s utterances The NS complete the NSS’s incomplete utterances

Ungrammatical input modifications of FT Long’s study –NS-NNS, NS-NS pairs, face-to-face oral tasks –Little difference between the two groups (grammatical complexity) –Significant difference in the use of conversational tactics (NS- NNS) such as repetitions, confirmation checks, comprehension checks or clarification requests. –Modifications to the interactional structure of conversations that take place in the process of negotiating a communication problem help make input comprehensible to an L2 learner. –The more the input was queried, recycled and paraphrased, to increase its comprehensibility, the greater its potential usefulness as input. –Types of tasks in which both partners are engaged may affect the types or amount of meaning negotiation (problem-solving tasks vs. open-ended discussions)

Grammatical FT is characterized by modifications indicate of three general processes: (1) simplification, involves an attempt on the part of native speakers to simplify the language forms they use; (2) regularization, and (3) elaboration are directed at simplifying the learners’ task of processing the input and can, in fact, result in the use of language that is not always simple in itself. Example : see page 255 table 7.2 Grammatical input modifications of FT

Interactional modifications of FT Long (1983) argued that modified interaction is the necessary mechanism for making language comprehensible. What learners need is not necessarily simplification of the linguistic forms but rather an opportunity to interact with other speakers, working together to reach mutual comprehension. There are two interactional modifications that involve, namely discourse management and discourse repair.

types of interactional modifications in FT discourse management - amount and type of information conveyed - use of question - here-and-now orientation - comprehension checks - self-repetition interactional modificationsrepair of communication breakdown discourse repair - negotiating of meaning - relinguishing topic repair of learner error - avoidance of other correction - on-record and off-record correction

NS speaker responses to foreigner asking the way Repetition Straight down to the big junction. Big junction, okay? Comprehension checks right ? alright? got it ? okay ?

NS speaker responses to foreigner asking the way Verbless utterances So you. Down there. You turn left at the Main Road. Straight down to the big junction. Direct imperatives Normal speech: If you walk straight up here to the end of this road to the church and turn left. FT: Up to the end of this street, to the church….then turn left and keep walking

NS speaker responses to foreigner asking the way  Do deletion in questions What country you come from? How long…long time in England?  Absence of inversion in questions You have snow there?  Other deletion If I stay at home, no good Top road Simplified lexis The grandchildren. Babies. Grandchildren. Cinema there. Picture place Absence of contractions I’ll show you. I will show you You can’t mistake it

Interaction and Negotiation of Meaning Signals of comprehension difficulty  c confirmation checks  c clarification checks  c comprehension checks

Confirmation checks Moves by which one speaker seeks confirmation of the other’s preceding utterance through repetition, with rising intonation, of what was perceived to be all or part of the preceding utterance. NS: did you get high marks? Good grades? NNS : High marks ? NS : Good grades A’s and B’s

Interaction and Negotiation of Meaning Clarification request Moves by which one speaker seeks assistance in understanding the other speaker’s preceding utterance through questions, … statements such as “I don’t understand,” or imperatives such as “Please repeat”. NS : So you came here by yourself or did you come here with friends? NNS : No no I …what? What you say? NS : Did you come to the States with friends or did you come alone?

Interaction and Negotiation of Meaning Comprehension checks Moves by which one speaker attempts to determine whether the other speaker has understood a preceding message. NS : Okay, he’s dancing with the woman doctor. NNS: Excuse me? NS : The young man doctor is dancing with the woman doctor, right?