Argumentation

CLAIM States a position on an issue.

Good claims are… Engaging Specific Logical

Good claims… … are not obvious. Why bother proving a point nobody could disagree with? … are engaging. They consider the audience’s attention span and make claims which point out new ideas. … are not overly vague. Attacking an enormous issue leads only to generalizations and vague assertions. … are logical. They emerge from a reasonable consideration of the evidence; however, this does not mean that evidence has only one logical interpretation.

Claim Examples Though they seem mere entertainment, Hollywood movies are actually responsible for reinforcing cultural stereotypes in America. The most plausible explanation for the recent increase in gambling as an acceptable pastime is the perceived stamp of approval by cultural institutions, such as state and local governments and organized religion.

REASONS Opinions that help prove why the claim is true

Good reasons… … tell the importance of the claim and the argument. … make someone care about the issue at hand.

Reason examples CLAIM: Flight attendants exposed to second-hand smoke should receive medical bill compensation from their employers. REASON: (Because) tobacco companies have concealed evidence that nicotine causes cancer. CLAIM: Inequality still exists in the workplace. REASON: (Because) men are paid more than women for the same work.

EVIDENCE Information that is cited in support of your claim

Evidence can include… Facts Statistics Examples Expert opinion Quotations

Evidence example Last year the State of Minnesota spent $$$ million dollars promoting their state-run lottery through ads focusing on the contributions made to environmental funds (Cary). Churches have used raffles, bingo nights, and even card tournaments as fundraisers for years.

WARRANT Interprets the data and shows how it supports the claim. It is usually a generally accepted rule.

A Good Warrant … will be a reasonable interpretation and analysis of the facts. will not make illogical interpretive leaps. will not assume more than the evidence supports. may consider and respond to possible counter-arguments.

An Example of a Warrant … Citizens look at the amount of time and effort devoted to promoting gambling-related activities by their government and churches and assume that this is a legitimate and even risk-free activity with little social stigma attached. If the state and church rely on these funds to survive, gambling may even be regarded as a social service: the more money they lose, the more they’re helping others.

COUNTERCLAIM A position on an issue that disagrees with the claim

Counterclaim example CLAIM: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution. COUNTERCLAIM: Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages a culture of driving even if it cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging use of mass transit systems.

Counterclaim Pitfalls Misrepresenting the opposing view You will not fool anyone by misrepresenting people who disagree with you; in fact, you will only weaken your own position because you will appear to fear the truth. Making a counterclaim that cannot be discredited (rebutted) Bringing up the opposing viewpoint and then failing to show why it is wrong will cause your audience to doubt that your position is the only right one

Counterclaim Pitfalls (con’t) Being unclear about disagreement with the counterclaim Do not allow your audience to think you are simply contradicting yourself. How can you persuade someone to accept your claim if you sound like you do not completely accept it?

Counterclaim Pitfalls (con’t) Repeating a reason given earlier in the argument to rebut the counterclaim The rebuttal should focus specifically on the objection in the counterclaim. If you merely repeat what you have already said, your audience will assume you cannot think of an effective response. Introducing only one rebuttal to the counterclaim The more reasons you can give to show that the counterclaim is wrong, the better.

Remarks from the President in State of the Union Address We gather tonight knowing that this generation of heroes has made the United States safer and more respected around the world. For the first time in nine years, there are no Americans fighting in Iraq. For the first time in two decades, Osama Bin Laden is not a threat to this country. Most of al Qaeda’s top lieutenants have been defeated. The Taliban’s momentum has been broken, and some troops in Afghanistan have begun to come home.