Prepared By: Miss Nur Baya Binti Mohd Hashim School of Computer and Communication Engineering UNIMAP

Objectives  Discuss properties of insulators, conductors, and semiconductors  Discuss covalent bonding  Describe the conductions in semiconductor  Discuss N-type and P-type semiconductor  Discuss basic structures of atoms  Discuss the diode  Discuss the bias of a diode

1.1 Atomic structure 1.2 Semiconductor, conductors and insulators 1.3 Covalent bonding 1.4 Conduction in semiconductors 1.5 N-type and P-type semiconductors 1.6 Diode 1.7 Biasing the diode 1.8 Voltage-current characteristic of a diode 1.9 Diode models 1.10 Testing a diode

Amplifier − Radio − Television − Computer − Telephon e Vacuum Tubes Able to operate very well −Large −Fragile −High power consumption To increase the strength of ac signals To convert ac energy to dc energy Electronic Systems Rectifier Vacuum Tube 1890s

Fig.1 : Structure of a vacuum tube diode and triode

− Smaller − More rugged − Less power consumption A Semiconductor Device commonly used as an amplifier or an electrically controlled switch Integrated circuits 1960s μicro-Processors 1980s Single small chip Transistor 1950s

Fig. 2: Transistor and symbols PNP NPN P-channel N-channel BJTJFET BJT = Bipolar Junction transistor JFET = Junction Field-Effect Transistor

A microprocessor is a programmable digital electronic component that incorporates the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single semiconducting integrated circuit (IC).programmabledigital electronic componentcentral processing unit (CPU)semiconductingintegrated circuit Fig. 3: (a) Integrated circuits and (b) microprocessor (a) (b)

1.1 Atomic Structure Basic structure Atomic number Electron shells Valence electron Free electron Ionization ATOM

The Atom  Atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of that element.  An atom consists of the protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus (core) at the center and electrons that orbit about the nucleus. The nucleus carries almost the total mass of the atom. Neutrons are neutral and carry no charge. Protons carry positive charges. The electrons carry negative charges.  The number of protons = the number of electrons in an atom, which makes it electrically neutral or balanced. Fig. 4: Bohr model of an atom

1.1 Atomic Structure (cont.) Protons (positive charge) Neutrons (uncharged) Nucleus (core of atom) Electrons (negative charge) ATOM

1.1 Atomic Structure (cont.) Atomic Number - Element in periodic table are arranged according to atomic number -Atomic number = number of protons in nucleus which is the same as the number of electron in an electrically balanced atom Electron Shells and Orbits -Electrons near the nucleus have less energy than those in more distant orbits. -Each distance (orbits) from the nucleus corresponding to a certain energy level. -In an atom, the orbits are group into energy bands – shells -Diff. in energy level within a shell << diff. in energy between shells.

Valence shell n 29 p L K M N Shells or orbital paths Valence electron Valence Electron Valence shell is the outermost shell in an atom that determines the conductivity of an atom. The electrons in valence shell are called valence electrons. Fig.5: Bohr model of copper atom (Cu)

1 st shell (K): 2n 2 = 2(1) 2 = 2 electrons 2 nd shell (L): 2n 2 = 2(2) 2 = 8 electrons 3 rd shell (M): 2n 2 = 2(3) 2 = 18 electrons 4 th shell (N): 1 electrons Total: 29 electrons n = the shell number The Number of Electrons in Each Shell -The maximum number of electrons (N e ) in each shell is calculated using formula below: -n = number of shell -Example for the copper atom (Cu) shell :

Ionization -When atom absorb energy (e.g heat source) – losing valence electron called ionization. -The escape electron is called free electron.

In terms of electrical properties All materials are made up of atoms that contribute to its ability to conduct electrical current Materials Insulators Conductors Semiconductors

1.2 Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators Atom can be represented by the valence shell and a core A core consists of all the inner shell and the nucleus Example of carbon atom: -valence shell – 4 e -inner shell – 2 e Nucleus: -6 protons -6 neutrons +6 for the nucleus and -2 for the two inner-shell electrons (net charge +4) Fig. 6: Diagram of a carbon atom

1-2 Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators (cont.) Conductors material that easily conducts electrical current. The best conductors are single-element material (e.g copper, silver, gold, aluminum) Only one valence electron very loosely bound to the atom- free electron Insulators material does not conduct electrical current (e.g rubber, plastic) valence electron are tightly bound to the atom – very few free electron Semiconductors material between conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct electric current in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator most common semiconductor- silicon(Si), germanium(Ge), and carbon(C) which contains four valence electrons.

Energy Bands 1.2 Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators (cont.)

Energy Bands 1-2 Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators (cont.) Energy gap-the difference between the energy levels of any two orbital shells Band-another name for an orbital shell (valence shell=valence band) Conduction band –the band outside the valence shell where it has free electrons. Fig. 7: Energy diagram for three types of materials

Energy Bands 1-2 Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators (cont.) eV (electron volt) – the energy absorbed by an electron when it is subjected to a 1V difference of potential at room temperature 25°

Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a Conductor Atom Core of Si atom has a net charge of +4 (14 protons – 10 electrons) and +1 (29 protons – 28 electrons) for Cu atom. A valence electron in Si atom feels an attractive force of +4 compared to Cu atom which feels an attractive force of +1. Force holding valence electrons to the atom in Si > in Cu. The distance from its nucleus of Copper’s valence electron (in 4 th shell) > silicon’s valence electron (in 3 rd shell). 1-2 Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators (cont.)

Valence electrons Core (+4) Core (+1) (a) Silicon atom(a) Copper atom Fig.1-10: Diagrams of the silicon and copper atoms 1-2 Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators (cont.)

1-3 Covalent Bonding Covalent bonding – holding atoms together by sharing valence electrons To form Si crystal sharing of valence electron produce the covalent bond 1-3 Covalent Bonding

1-3 Covalent Bonding (cont.) Result of the bonding: 1.The atom are held together forming a solid substrate. 2.The atoms are all electrically stable, because their valence shells are complete. 3.The complete valence shells cause the silicon to act as an insulator-intrinsic (pure) silicon. In other word, it is a very poor conductor.

Covalent bonding in an intrinsic or pure silicon crystal. An intrinsic crystal has no impurities. 1-3 Covalent Bonding (cont.) Covalent bonds in a 3-D silicon crystal

1-4 Conduction in Semiconductor Figure 1-10 Energy band diagram for a pure (intrinsic) silicon crystal with unexcited (no external energy such as heat) atoms. There are no electrons in the conduction band. This condition occurs only at a temperature of absolute 0 Kelvin.

Conduction Electrons and Holes When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the vallence band, this vacancy is called a hole and the electron is said to be in an excited state. Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron after within a few microseconds of becoming a free, loss its energy and falls back into a hole in the valence band. The energy given up by the electron is in the form of light and/or heat. Fig.1-11: Creation of electron-hole pairs in a Si atom. (a) energy diagram, and (b) bonding diagram

Electron and Hole Current At the temperature room, at any instant, a number of free electrons that are unattached to any atom drift randomly throughout the material. This condition occurs when no voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic Si (as illustrated in Fig. 12). When a voltage is applied across the piece of intrinsic Si, as shown in Fig. 13, the thermally generated free electrons in the conduction band, which are free to move, are now easily attracted toward the positive end. At the same time, there are also an equal number of holes in the valence band created by electrons that jump into the conduction band (Fig. 14). The movement of free electrons in a semiconductive material is called electron current. The movement of electrons in a valence band is called hole current.

Fig.12: Free electrons are being generated continuously while some recombine with holes Fig. 13: Free electrons are attracted toward the positive end

1-4 Conduction in Semiconductor (cont.) Electrons and Holes Current Figure 14 Hole current in intrinsic silicon. movement of holes

1-5 N-type and P-type Semiconductors Trivalent Impurities: Aluminum (Al) Gallium (Ga) Boron (B) Indium (In) Pentavalent Impurites: Phosphorus (P) Arsenic (As) Antimony (Sb) Bismuth (Bi) Doping - The process of creating N and P type materials - By adding impurity atoms to intrinsic Si or Ge to improve the conductivity of the semiconductor - Two types of doping – trivalent (3 valence e-) & pentavalent (5 valence e-) p-type material – a semiconductor that has added trivalent impurities n-type material – a semiconductor that has added pentavalent impurities

1-5 N-type and P-type Semiconductors (cont.) N-type semiconductor  Pentavalent impurities are added to Si or Ge, the result is an increase of free electrons  1 extra electrons becomes a conduction electrons because it is not attached to any atom  No. of conduction electrons can be controlled by the no. of impurity atoms  Pentavalent atom gives up (donate) an electron - call a donor atom  Current carries in n-type are electrons – majority carriers  Holes – minority carriers (holes created in Si when generation of electron- holes pair. Sb impurity atom Electrons (majority carriers) Holes (minority carriers) Conduction band Valence band Energy Fig. (a): N-type semiconductor Fig. (b) : Energy diagram (n-type) Fig (a) Fig (b)

1-5 N-type and P-type Semiconductors (cont.) P-type semiconductor:  Trivalent impurities are added to Si or Ge to increase number of holes.  Boron, indium and gallium have 3 valence e- form covalent bond with 4 adjacent silicon atom. A hole created when each trivalent atom is added.  The no. of holes can be controlled by the no. of trivalent impurity atoms  The trivalent atom can take an electron- acceptor atom  Current carries in p-type are holes – majority carries  Electrons – minority carries (created during electron-holes pairs generation). B impurity atom Fig (a) Fig. (a): P-type semiconductor Fig. (b) : Energy diagram (p-type) Electrons (majority carriers) Holes (minority carriers) Conduction band Valence band Energy Fig (b)

1-6 The Diode - Diode is a device that conducts current only in one direction. - n-type material & p-type material become extremely useful when joined together to form a pn junction – then diode is created -Before the pn junction is formed -no net charge (neutral) since no of proton and electron is equal in both n-type and p-type. -p region: holes (majority carriers), e- (minority carriers) -n region: e- (majority carriers), holes (minority carriers)

1-6 The Diode (cont.) The Depletion Region

Summary: When an n-type material is joined with a p-type material: 1.A small amount of diffusion occurs across the junction. 2.When e- diffuse into p-region, they give up their energy and fall into the holes near the junction. 3.Since the n-region loses electrons, it creates a layer of +ve charges (pentavalent ions). 4.p-region loses holes since holes combine with electron and will creates layer of –ve charges (trivalent ion). These two layers form depletion region. 5Depletion region establish equilibrium (no further diffusion) when total –ve charge in the region repels any further diffusion of electrons into p-region.

N-type P-type Total (+) = 21 Total (-) = 20 Net charge = +1 Total (+) = 19 Total (-) = 20 Net charge = -1 Junction Fig.1-18: Depletion layer charges

 In depletion region, many +ve and –ve charges on opposite sides of pn junction.  The forces between the opposite charges form a “field of forces "called an electric field.  This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n- region, therefore it needs more energy to move an e- through the electric field.  The potential difference of electric field across the depletion region is the amount of voltage required to move e- through the electric field. This potential difference is called barrier potential. [ unit: V ]  Depends on: type of semicon. material, amount of doping and temperature. (e.g : 0.7V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge at 25°C).

1-6 The Diode (cont.) Energy Diagram of the PN Junction and Depletion Region Overlapping

 Energy level for n-type (Valence and Cond. Band) << p- type material (difference in atomic characteristic : pentavalent & trivalent) and significant amount of overlapping.  Free e- in upper part conduction band in n-region can easily diffuse across junction and temporarily become free e- in lower part conduction band in p-region. After crossing the junction, the e- loose energy quickly & fall into the holes in p-region valence band.

 As the diffusion continues, the depletion region begins to form and the energy level of n-region conduction band decreases due to loss of higher-energy e- that diffused across junction to p-region.  Soon, no more electrons left in n-region conduction band with enough energy to cross the junction to p-region conduction band.  Figure (b), the junction is at equilibrium state, the depletion region is complete and diffusion has ceased (stop). Create an energy gradient which act as energy ‘hill’ where electron at n-region must climb to get to the p- region  The energy gap between valence & cond. band – remains the same

1.7 Biasing The Diode Depletion Layer Width Junction Resistance Junction Current Min Max Min The relationship between the width of depletion layer & the junction current Bias is a potential applied to p-n junction to obtain certain operating conditions. This potential is used to control the width of the depletion layer. By controlling the width of the depletion layer, we are able to control the resistance of the p-n junction and thus the amount of current that can pass through the device. Two bias condition: forward and reverse bias

1. Forward bias is a potential used to reduce the resistance of p-n junction 2. Voltage source or bias connections are + to the p region and – to the n region. 3. Bias voltage must be greater than barrier potential (0.3 V for Germanium or 0.7 V for Silicon). 4. The depletion region narrows 5. R – limits the current which can prevent damage to the diode Diode connection

 The negative side of the bias voltage push the free electrons in the n-region -> pn junction. Flow of free electron is called electron current.  Also provide a continuous flow of electron through the external connection into n-region.  Bias voltage imparts energy to the free e- to move to p-region.  Electrons in p-region loss energy- combine with holes in valence band. 1.7 Biasing The Diode (cont.) Forward bias

 Since unlike charges attract, positive side of bias voltage source attracts the e- left end of p-region.  Holes in p-region act as medium or pathway for these e- to move through the p-region.  e- move from one hole to the next toward the left.  The holes (majority cariers) move to right toward the junction. This effective flow is called hole current. Flow of majority carries and the voltage across the depletion region

1.7 Biasing The Diode (cont.) The Effect of Forward bias on the Depletion Region  As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the no. of +ve ion is reduced.  As more holes flow into the depletion region on the other side of pn junction, the no. of –ve ions is reduced.  Reduction in +ve & -ve ions – causes the depletion region to narrow.

1.7 Biasing The Diode (cont.) The Effect of the Barrier Potential During Forward Bias  Electric field between +ve & -ve ions in depletion region creates “energy hill” that prevent free e- from diffusing at equilibrium state -> barrier potential  When apply forward bias – free e- provided enough energy to climb the hill and cross the depletion region.  Electron got the same energy = barrier potential to cross the depletion region.  An add. small voltage drop occurs across the p and n regions due to internal resistance of material – called dynamic resistance – very small and can be neglected

 Reverse bias - Condition that prevents current through the diode  Voltage source or bias connections are – to the p material and + to the n material  Current flow is negligible in most cases.  The depletion region widens than in forward bias. Diode connection

 + side of bias pulls the free electrons in the n-region away from pn junction cause add. +ve ions are created, widening the depletion region.  In the p-region, e- from – side of the voltage source enter as valence electrons and move from hole to hole toward the depletion region, then created add. – ve ions.  As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority carriers decrease  As more of the n and p regions become depleted of majority carriers, the electrical field between the positive and negative ions increases in strength until the potential across the depletion region equals the bias voltage.  At this point, the transition current essentially ceases (stop) except for a very small reverse current.

Extremely small current exist – after the transition current dies out caused by the minority carries in n & p regions that are produced by thermally generated electron hole pairs. Small number of free minority e- in p region are “pushed toward the pn junction by the –ve bias voltage. e- reach wide depletion region, they “fall down the energy hill” combine with minority holes in n -region as valence e- and flow towards the +ve bias voltage – create small hole current. The cond. band in p region is at higher energy level compare to cond. band in n-region e- easily pass through the depletion region because they require no additional energy.

1.8 Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias -When a forward bias voltage is applied, there is current called forward current, I F. -In this case with the voltage applied is less than the barrier potential so the diode for all practical purposes is still in a non-conducting state. Current is very small. -Increase forward bias voltage – current also increase. FIGURE 1-26 Forward-bias measurements show general changes in V F and I F as V BIAS is increased.

- With the applied voltage exceeding the barrier potential (0.7V), forward current begins increasing rapidly. - But the voltage across the diode increase only gradually above 0.7 V. This is due to voltage drop across internal dynamic resistance of semicon material. 1.8 Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode (cont.) V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias FIGURE 1-26 Forward-bias measurements show general changes in V F and I F as V BIAS is increased.

-By plotting the result of measurement in Figure 1- 26, you get the V-I characteristic curve for a forward bias diode - Increase to the right - increase upward -After 0.7V, voltage remains at 0.7V but I F increase rapidly. -Normal operation for a forward-biased diode is above the knee of the curve. 1.8 Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode (cont.) V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias dynamic resistance r’ d decreases as you move up the curve zero bias Below knee, resistance is greatest since current increase very little for given voltage, Resistance become smallest above knee where a large change in current for given change in voltage.

1.8 Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode (cont.) V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias Reverse Current - V R increase to the left along x-axis while I R increase downward along y- axis. - When V R reaches V BR, I R begin to increase rapidly. Breakdown voltage, V BR. - not a normal operation of pn junction devices. - the value can be vary for typical Si. - Cause overheating and possible damage to diode.

1.8 Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode (cont.) The Complete V-I Characteristic Curve Combine-Forward bias & Reverse bias  CompleteV-I characteristic curve

1.8 Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode (cont.) Temperature Effects on the Diode V-I Characteristic  Forward biased diode : for a given value of  Barrier potential decrease as T increase.  For reverse-biased, T increase, I R increase.  Reverse current breakdown – small & can be neglected

1-9 Diode Models Diode Structure & Symbol Direction of current cathodeanode

1-9 Diode Models (cont.) DIODE MODEL The Ideal Diode Model The Complete Diode Model The Practical Diode Model

1-9 Diode Models (cont.) The Ideal Diode Model Ideal model of diode- simple switch: Closed (on) switch -> FB Open (off) switch - > RB Barrier potential, dynamic resistance and reverse current all neglected. Assume to have zero voltage across diode when FB. Forward current determined by Ohm’s law

1-9 Diode Models (cont.) The Practical Diode Model Adds the barrier potential to the ideal switch model ‘ is neglected From figure (c): The forward current [by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to figure (a)] By Ohm’s Law: Equivalent to close switch in series with a small equivalent voltage source equal to the barrier potential 0.7V Represent by produced across the pn junction Open circuit, same as ideal diode model. Barrier potential doesn’t affect RB

1-9 Diode Models (cont.) The Complete Diode Model Complete model of diode consists: Barrier potential Dynamic resistance, Internal reverse resistance, The forward voltage consists of barrier potential & voltage drop across r’ d : The forward current: acts as closed switch in series with barrier potential and small acts as open switch in parallel with the large

1-9 Diode Models (cont.) Example 1 10V 1.0kΩ 5V 1.0kΩ (1) Determine the forward voltage and forward current [forward bias] for each of the diode model also find the voltage across the limiting resistor in each cases. Assumed rd’ = 10  at the determined value of forward current.

1-9 Diode Models (cont.) Example 1 a)Ideal Model: b)Practical Model: (c) Complete model:

1-9 Diode Models (cont.) Typical Diodes Diodes come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The design and structure is determined by what type of circuit they will be used in.

1-10 Testing A Diodes By Digital Multimeter - Testing a diode is quite simple, particularly if the multimeter used has a diode check function. With the diode check function a specific known voltage is applied from the meter across the diode. K AA K - With the diode check function a good diode will show approximately 0.7 V or 0.3 V when forward biased. - When checking in reverse bias, reading based on meter’s internal voltage source. 2.6V is typical value that indicate diode has extremely high reverse resistance.

1-10 Testing A Diodes (By Digital Multimeter) -When diode is failed open, open reading voltage is 2.6V or “OL” indication for forward and reverse bias. -If diode is shorted, meter reads 0V in both tests. If the diode exhibit a small resistance, the meter reading is less than 2.6V.

1-10 Testing A Diodes By Analog Multimeter – OHMs Function Select OHMs range Good diode: Forward-bias:  get low resistance reading (10 to 100 ohm) Reverse-bias:  get high reading (0 or infinity)

Summary  P-materials are doped with trivalent impurities  N-materials are doped with pentavalent impurities  P and N type materials are joined together to form a PN junction.  A diode is nothing more than a PN junction.  At the junction a depletion region is formed. This creates barrier which requires approximately 0.3 V for a Germanium and 0.7 V for Silicon for conduction to take place.  Diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits are all made of semiconductor material.

Summary  The voltage at which avalanche current occurs is called reverse breakdown voltage. Reverse breakdown voltage for diode is typically greater than 50V.  There are three ways of analyzing a diode. These are ideal, practical, and complete. Typically we use a practical diode model.  A diode conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased

 There once was a wise man that was known throughout the land for his wisdom. One day a young boy wanted to test him to prove that the wise man a fake.  He thought to himself, “I will bring one live bird to test the old man. I will ask him whether the bird in my hand is dead or alive. If he says that it is alive, I will squeeze hard to kill the bird to prove that he is wrong.  On the other hand if he says that it is dead, I will let the bird fly off, proving that he is wrong. Either way the wise man will be wrong.”

 With that idea in mind, he approached the wise man and asked, “Oh wise man, I have a bird in my hand. Can you tell me if the bird is dead or alive?”.  The wise man paused for a moment and replied, “Young man, you indeed have a lot t learn. That which you hold in your hand, it is what you make of it. The life of the bird is in your hand.  If you wish it to be dead, then it will die. On the other hand if you desire it to live, it will surely live”. The young boy finally realized that the answer given was indeed that of a man of wisdom.

 Our dreams are very fragile, just like the little bird. It is our own decision, if we decide to kill it, or allow others to steal it away from us. However, it is also our own choice to nurture it and let it grow to fruition. Success comes to those who allow their dreams to fly high, just like the little bird, which will soar into the sky if the young boy released it from his grasp.

Basic diode structure at the instant of junction formation showing only majority and minority carriers.