1 Classical Western Thought 1. The Homeric Moral Outlook

1. The Importance of Homer

In the Western classical tradition Homer (? 750 BC), is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet ( 史诗 ). Many Greeks with some eduction learnt the Homeric poems. The Athenians heard them recited in public. Your fathers took him to be such an excellent poet that they passed a law that every four years he, alone of all poets, should have his works performed by reciters at the All-Athenian festival. -- Augustine, Confession

Illustration 1. All-Athenian Festival

Illustration 2: Ancient Greek Singers

From Homer many Greeks drew central and influential elements of their conception of the gods and the relation of gods to human beings, and they drew a moral outlook and ideal. It is not surprising that later philosophers regularly quote Homer. He is not always an authority; indeed, he is sometimes a target, since thoughtful Greeks attack and challenge his views on morality and religion.

7

8 2. The Ideal Person and the Ideal Life Some of a person's goodness is outside his control. A good person must have been born into a good family, and must himself be rich and strong. The hereditary, social, and material components of a person's goodness are so important that, if you have them, you remain a good person, even if you behave badly. The Homeric moral outlook is most easily understood from its conception of the ideal person. Heredity A Good Person Social StatusWealth

Iliad, book 3, At once Menelaus jumped from his chariot, down to the ground, his weapons in his fists. When godlike Alexander saw Menelaus there, among the fighters at the front, his heart sank. He moved back into the ranks, among his comrades, avoiding death. Just as a man stumbles on a snake in some mountainous ravine and gives way, jumping back, his limbs trembling, his cheeks pale, so godlike Paris, afraid of Atreus' son, slid back into proud Trojan ranks. 9

10 Some aspects of a person's goodness are in his control. A hero is expected to display his excellence in his actions, characteristically and ideally the actions of a warrior and leader. A good man excels in battle, and his characteristic virtues are strength, skill, and courage. The hero is individualistic, in so far as he is concerned primarily with his own success and reputation; he does not aim primarily at some collective goal that includes the good of other people, or of a whole society.

11 An example: Achilles Birth Achilles was the son of the nymph Thetis and Peleus, the king of the Myrmidons. His mother, Thetis is a sea nymph or known as the goddess of water. when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx. However, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him, his heel. He was taught by Chiron, an intellegent Centaur who was known for his knowledge and skills with medicine.

12 Achilles' parents: Thetis and Peleus (Attic red-figured kylix 460 BC)

13 The Education of Achilles (1772) by James Barry ( )

14 Achilles in the Trojan War Achilles' father sent him to Troy "always to be best and to excel the others". Achilles is the "best of the Achaeans", above all because he is the strongest, the bravest, and the most skillful. Achilles and Agamemnon quarrel at the beginning of the war, because Agamemnon takes Briseis, who is Achilles' prize, and so slights Achilles' honour. Honour, as Homer conceives it, includes, primarily, other people's good opinion, and, secondarily, the material and social "honours" that are both causes and effects of this good opinion.

Briseis being taken to Agamemnon 15

16 Achilles' rage by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, 1757

17 3. Self and Others The hero is certainly not indifferent to others. Thetis is concerned about her son Achilles Thetis and attendants bring armor she had prepared for him to Achilles, an Attic black-figure hydria, c. 575–550 BC

18 Hector is concerned about his wife and son. Hector's last visit to his family before his duel with Achilles: Astyanax, on Andromache's knees, stretches to touch his father's helmet. red-figure column-crater, 370–360 BC

19 Achilles tending Patroclus wounded by an arrow ( 500 BC)

20 A hero of superior strength and power has inferiors who depend on him, and he is expected to defend them. A good husband, such as Hector, cares about his wife. Achilles does what is expected of the greater hero, and cares about his friend and dependant Patroclus. Odysseus appeals to the common interest of the group in his attempt to persuade Achilles to give up the quarrel with Agamemnon. Odysseus: was a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey.

Apart from these specific expectations of particular people in special relations to the hero, people in general expect him to be moved by common human feelings. Achilles displays callous indifference in his dishonouring of Hector’s corpse. He finally outgrows this attitude when he meets Priam: when he thinks of his own father, he understands Priam’s feelings and is moved by them. 21 Priam begs Achilles to pity him, saying "I have endured what no one on earth has ever done before — I put my lips to the hands of the man who killed my son."

Triumphant Achilles: Achilles dragging the dead body of Hector in front of the gates of Troy, painting,

Priam Asking Achilles to Return Hector's Body, painting,

The interests of other people are important to a hero, but a hero’s attitude to these interests is not a prominent part of his goodness. A hero is criticized if he is as indifferent to them as Achilles is. Achilles loses none of his heroic virtue by being selfishly indifferent to others. He remains the best of the Achaeans, and no one so much as suggests that his selfish indifference might damage his reputation for goodness. If he had been captured by pirates and sold into slavery, he would have lost half his virtue. 24

4. Difficulties in Homeric Ethics The Homeric outlook creates conflicts for those who accept it. Some of the conflicts arise for the individual himself. Achilles knows that honor is unstable and transitory, and in any case does not matter much to someone when he is dead. However, his shame at the dishonor he suffers from the death of Patroculus forces him back into the battle, even though he knows his own death will be the result. 25

Homeric ethics creates the conflict within an individual, but it also creates it within a society. Each hero wants his own honour and fights for it with others. When everyone tolerates this system, it may be bad for everyone. Example: Penelope’s suitors. Their selfish and parasitic behaviour is bad for the whole community. But from one point of view, it is heroic, since it promises considerable rewards in honour and status for the luck one who marries Penelope. 26

Penelope and the Suitors by John William Waterhouse (1912) 27

Slaughter of the suitors by Odysseus, bell-krater, 330 BC 28

Odysseus using a bow and arrow to slay Penelope's suitors 29

Thersites’s criticism Thersites was a soldier of the Greek army during the Trojan War. He is a brash, obstreperous, and ugly rabble-rouser. He denouces the kings as selfish parasites wasting the resources of the community. He is beaten by Odysseus for his insolence. 30