Human Growth and Development

Areas of Human Development Physical Development -The growth and development of the body’s muscles, bones, energy systems, and nervous system. Cognitive development -An individuals ability to interpret and process information; emotional development; awareness of one’s self. Motor or skills development -A combination of cognitive and physical development. Social development -The development of relationships with peers, friends, relatives, adults etc.

Age and Physical Development Chronological age -Age measured in years, months, and days Skeletal age -Age indicated by the physical maturity of the skeleton -Nutrition, diet, disease, and major bone injuries can cause the skeletal age to lag behind the chronological age Developmental age -Age as expressed in one’s ability to perform certain tasks

Human Morphology Endomorph -More fatty tissue and thicker body parts Mesomorph -Develop stocky, heavily muscled, and broader bodies -Maturing early as children Ectomorph -Develop a thinner body, characterized by narrow hips and longer arms and legs. -Later to reach maturity

Human Morphology

Stages of Human Growth and Development Four basic stages each with fundamental aspects and characteristics Infancy/Toddler Zero to two-three years Childhood four to 10 years Puberty/Adolescence 11 to 18 years Adulthood 18 years and older

Infancy/Toddler Most marked growth in humans Double birth weight in six months; triple it in a year By end of second year brain is 75% of adult weight Body length typically increases by 50% Considerable muscular development Gains in ability to perform basic tasks Grasp, crawl, pull to stand, walk Most toddlers walk by age two, run by age three

Childhood Rapid stage of growth from four to six years From six to ten years the body “stabilizes” Uniform relationship between bone and tissue growth and development occurs

Puberty/Adolescence Growth speeds up during this phase Physical Psychological Sexual maturity Pituitary gland triggers in both sexes Marked changes in physical appearance Girls: breasts, body curves, menstruation Boys: semen, facial and body hair, deepening voice

Adulthood Most growth has taken place Other physical changes: Weight gain Reduced oxygen capacity Rise in blood pressure Joint deterioration Many conditions caused by: Diminished exercise Diet and nutrition issues Increased stress and responsibilities

Phases of Movement 1. Reflexive movement (birth to four months) Humans show controlled motor development 2. Rudimentary movement (birth to two years) Locomotor activity Manipulation and stability movements begin

Phases of Movement 3. Fundamental movement (two to seven years) Basic movement skills; three phases Initial Elementary Mature 4. Sport-Related Movement (seven years to adulthood) Three phases General Specific specialized

Different Rates of Growth Cephalocaudal Sequence Growth progresses fastest in the head Followed by the trunk Lastly the extremities Proximodistal Sequence Body movements that originate closer to the centre of the body seem to develop earlier than those that originate further from the centre.

Factors Affecting Physical Growth Glandular/Hormonal Activity Hormones affect metabolism Glands can suffer from diseases Heredity Difficult to predict many areas of genetically inherited growth Nutrition/Diet Inadequate/unbalanced diet can lead to physical development issues

Factors Affecting Physical Growth Physical Activity Lack of activity harmful/excess also negative Balance is key Sociocultural Factors Can be difficult to assess Depends on opportunity/values

Cognitive Development Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development Sensorimotor (birth to two years of age) Characterized by infant demonstrating intelligence by means of motor activity without use of symbols Knowledge based purely on immediate experience Ability to use memory to recall objects and events

Cognitive Development- cont’d Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development Pre-Operational (two to seven years of age) Demonstrate intelligence through use of symbols Considerable language development Significant growth in memory and imagination

Cognitive Development- cont’d Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development Concrete Operational (seven to 11 years of age) Logical thinking develops Able to solve concrete problems logically Reversibility or operational thinking develops Develop capacity for empathy

Cognitive Development- cont’d Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development Formal Operational (11 to 15 years of age) Demonstrate intelligence through ability to solve increasingly complicated abstract problems using logic Return to egocentric thinking in early stage Begin to think about social issues and one’s own identity and appearance

Social Development Socialization Ways in which, from a young age, humans form attachments with others Friendship Reciprocal relationship (doing things for one another in roughly equal measure) Committed over a long period of time Notion that common interest must be shared

Individual Attributes Checklist The child: Is usually in a positive mood Is not excessively dependant on the teacher, assistant, or other adults Usually comes to the program or setting willingly Usually copes with rebuffs and reverses adequately Shows the capacity to emphasize Has a positive relationship with one two peers; shows capacity to really care about them, miss them if absent, and so forth Displays the capacity for humour Does not seem to be acutely or chronically lonely

Social Skill Attributes Checklist The child usually Approaches others positively Expresses wishes and preferences clearly Asserts own rights and needs appropriately Is not easily intimidated by bullies Expresses frustrations and anger effectively Makes relevant contributions to ongoing activities Takes turns fairly easily Shows interest in others Negotiates and compromises appropriately Does not draw inappropriate attention to self Accepts peers and adults of ethnic groups other than own Interacts non-verbally with other children (e.g., smiles, waves, nods)

Peer Relationship Attributes Checklist The child is: Usually accepted versus neglected or rejected by other children Sometimes invited by other children to join them in play, friendship, and work

Chapter 19: Motor Learning and Skill Acquisition

Basic Principles of Motor Learning Motor learning The process by which a person develops, through a combination of physical and psychological factors, the ability to perform a task Root of any motor activity lies in the sensory and nervous systems

Basic Principles of Motor Learning Motor learning divided into to basic concepts Automatic motor activity- involves very little thought, and results in movement that appears to be an almost unconscious reflex action. Ex. A baseball pitcher who ducks from a ball Controlled motor activity- more thought and time to perform. Ex. Soccer player weaving in and out of pylons.

Basic Principles of Motor Learning Principle of Individual Differences Individuals vary widely in terms of how quickly and easily they learn new skills

Stages of Motor Learning Fitts and Posner’s stages-of-learning model  How people acquire new skills Cognitive stage Basic understanding of task Learner commits relatively large errors; may need specific instruction on how to improve

Stages of Motor Learning Associative Stage Learner begins to refine skill Develop awareness of mistakes Effort becomes more consistent Autonomous Stage Skill becomes “automatic” Aware of mistakes and how to correct them

Stages of Motor Learning

Factors Affecting Skill Development Incorrect understanding of the movement Poor physical abilities Poor condition of movement Incorrect application of power Lack of concentration Inappropriate equipment, clothing, or footwear External factors Weather conditions

Teaching and Learning a Skill Five-step method of skills teaching Readying Preparatory Ex. Equipment Work to attain ideal mental and emotional state Imaging Develop “picture” in mind of correct skill execution Focusing “zero” in on skill Ex. Block out external and internal distractions

Teaching and Learning a Skill Five-step method of skills teaching Executing Learner attempts skill after completing first three stages Evaluating Assess which aspects of skill were successful and which needed improvement

The Role of Evaluation Feedback- provides the learner with information on progress when learning to perform a skill Can assist in performance improvement

The Role of Evaluation Two types of feedback: KR feedback Knowledge of results of an action Example: individual working on golf swing can get KR feedback by seeing how far ball travelled after each shot KP feedback (kinematic feedback) Knowledge of performance Example: individual practising golf shot would not be concerned with where ball lands but with the actual swing The input of an outside observer or instructor is critical. Example: Your ball only travelled a short distance because you jerked your head up last minute.

Basic Skill Categories Locomotor-Moving Skills Body transport Ex. Walking, running, skating, etc. Manipulative-Handling Skills Object manipulation Catching, throwing, etc. Stability-Balancing Skills Balancing skills Ex. Two feet, one foot, etc.

Classifying Skills Open skill Performed in an unpredictable environment Requires participants to adapt their movements to changing nature of environment Environmental conditions are in motion Closed skill Predictable environment Permits participants to plan movements in advance Environmental conditions are stationary

Skills Analysis Stages of skill observation  Pre-observation stage and an observation stage coaches are encouraged to: Identify the purpose of the skill Knowing skill purpose assists observation of skill

Skills Analysis Break the skill into phases Preliminary movements Movements needed to get ready for skill Back-swing or recovery movements Movements that take place just before force-producing movements Force-producing movements Movements executed to produce force for impact or propulsion Critical instant Point that determines how effective skill execution will be Follow-through Movements that take place after critical instant

Skill Analysis- cont’d Identify key elements of each phase Break each phase into observable elements Key elements of each phase generally connected to execution of other skill phases

Skill Analysis- cont’d Develop observation plan Must decide before watching how they are going to perform the observation process Determination of which key elements will be observed Develop scanning strategy to obtain general picture before focusing on specific elements Choose a varied number of positions for observation Determination of how many observations needed

Chapter 20: Sport Psychology

Sport Psychology Sport psychology Study placed within context of sports How people think, feel, and behave in sporting situations The mental processes that motivate the way they behave in training and competition

The Mental and Physical Connections Connection between brain activity and workings of muscles, joints, limbs, and bodily systems In athletic performance, cerebral cortex plays key role  Generates general mental state prior to athletic event Nervousness might lead to extra stimulus being placed on muscles and the development of “nervous tension” Controllable through relaxation exercises and techniques

Performance States Ideal performance state The complete absence of doubt and fear of failure, and a general lack of inhibition A very narrow focus of attention with little or no signs of distraction from the goals of competition A sense of effortlessness and simply “letting it happen” Powerful feelings of being “in control” of one’s performance

Key Terms in Sport Psychology Arousal “Being psyched up” Athlete feels ready physically and psychologically Anxiety General sense of uncertainty Muscular tension/“Butterflies”

Key Terms in Sport Psychology Relaxation Mind-body state with no anxiety Concentration Ability to keep one’s focus without being distracted Determine what is relevant and irrelevant to performance Motivation Direction and intensity of effort Direction refers to attraction to certain sport situations Intensity refers to amount of physical and mental energy given

Audience and Fatigue Role of the audience Some react positively to large crowds Encouragement Others better suited to settings of isolation Tools to control responses to audience Fatigue Mental state where feelings of tiredness can lead to decreases in performance “push through pain to realize new performance levels

Factors Affecting Performance Self-Talk Internal monologue going through athlete’s mind before competition Can be encouraging or discouraging Athletes need to regulate and control internal talk in a “positive” way to use it to achieve peak performance Imagery and Visualization Tools used to assist seeing oneself succeed A powerful impetus for success

Factors Affecting Performance- cont’d Hypnosis Two types: 1. Heterohypnosis Placed under hypnosis by another person 2. Self-hypnosis Placed under hypnosis by self Three phases Induction Create feeling of relaxation Subject feels sleepy Hypnotic Able to carry out suggestions Waking hypnosis Wake-up Coming out of “trance” upon therapist’s signal

Factors Affecting Performance- cont’d Relaxation/Arousal Regulation Enforce a state of relaxation over mind and body leading to enhanced performance by removing anxiety Tools include: Breathing exercises Meditation Imagery Developing concentration Selective attention Tools include: Positive self-talk Duplicating distractions during practice Cue words

Factors Affecting Performance- cont’d Improving Motivation Four basic principles that relate to athletes: Personal traits vs. environment Multiple Motives Staying Motivated Leadership

Factors Affecting Performance- cont’d Goal Setting Objective goals Empirically quantifiable Subjective goals Outcomes harder to quantify S.M.A.R.T. Principle Specific Able to be precisely defined Measurable Able to be quantified Attainable Within an athlete’s limitations Realistic Attainable within constraints Timely Achievable within a set time frame

The Quest for Excellence Orlick’s wheel of excellence suggest seven key elements of excellence: Commitment Focused connection Confidence Positive images Mental readiness Distraction control Ongoing learning

Sport Psychology and Children Can have significant impact on approach to sports from a physical, social, and mental perspective Children respond well to praise and encouragement Enjoyment of activities will help them build skills and confidence Children benefit from participation during both games and practices