Failure to modernize, the empire underwent palace coups, declining trade, and weakening leadership in the 1800s.

In Arabia, Islamic fundamentalist called Wahhabis took control of Mecca and Medina.

Greece was wanting independence. Supported by Russia, France, and Great Britain. Naval “battle of Navarino” (1827), Greece gained independence (1832).

Other territories became independent during the nineteenth century; Bulgaria, Romania, and Serbia fell under the “protection” of Russia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Congress of Berlin (1878), reorganize the Balkans after the “Russo-Turkish War.”

The Habsburg government of Austria-Hungary, annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908). These losses illustrate the increasing power of the European nations prior to World War I.

France gained control of Algiers and made Tunis a protectorate (1881). Britain gained control of Cyprus, strengthening their control on shipping in the Mediterranean Sea.

Sultan ruled Egypt, but had little power. Mamluks, slaves soldiers, ruled for 600 years.

Except for Istanbul the remainder of the empire was now in Asia.

Sultan Selim III (r ) attempted to reform the Ottoman army and bureaucracy after Europe. Islamic scholars, and the Janissaries, resisted reform. This opposition limited reforms. Selim III was executed by supporters of the Janissaries (1807).

Sultan Mahmud II (r ) abolished the corps of Janissaries (1826). Janissaries revolted but were massacred. Developed a new artillery unit trained by Europeans. Military officers no longer collected taxes, thus all taxes went directly to the central government.

He also built more roads and set up a postal service. To fight the popular religious charities, he set up government charities. For the central government, he created European-style ministries.

Later reforms called “Tanzimat” (reorganization) ( ) included: 1.Stop corruption in the central government. 2.Take away power from the ulama (educated Muslim scholars) by creating secular schools and colleges. 3.Codification of Ottoman laws making it easier for foreigners to do business in the empire. 4.“Edict of Hatt-i Humayun” (Ottoman Reform Edict), declaring equality for all men regardless of religion or ethnicity. 5.Changed military headgear from caps to the fez (1828).

The Ottomans no longer controlled trade from Asia to Europe. A new global economy, built on Atlantic/Pacific trade routes bypassed Istanbul.

Relatively few exports and a waning agricultural economy, the empire relied mostly upon its trade with Europe.

Germany presented an investment plan for a railway from Baghdad to Berlin (The Orient Express). Ottoman government accepted the plan, allowed foreigners to set up banking offices in Istanbul.

Foreigners were granted “extraterritoriality,” the right of foreign residents in a country to live under the laws of their own country rather than those of their host country.

“Capitulations,” concessions made by sultans to foreign nations. These concessions give the foreign nations favorable advantages in trade and import taxes, and drained resources from the Ottoman Empire.

They often protected the rights of Christians to worship when they were in the Ottoman lands. Treaty of Lausanne (1923) abolished these concession.

Resentment against foreign investments and the imposed trade privileges unprofitable for the Ottomans, caused the Empire to ally with Germany and become part of the Central Powers of World War I.

As the economy declined, some groups scapegoated (blamed) others for their problems. Armenians, a Christian minority, living and working in Anatolia were blamed.

“The Young Turks”, became advocates for a militantly secular Turkish national state as well as for “Turkification” of ethnic minorities. A process of cultural change designed to make all citizens of the empire become part of a common Turkish heritage and culture.

Legal reforms benefited men more than women. Under shariah, women could hold money, gain inheritances, and receive some education. New secular law ended these rights. Tanzimat reforms did not mention women for, military, higher education, or commerce.

Girls attended state primary schools (end of 19 th century). Upper-class girls went to secondary schools, studied fine arts. Not much gender equality.

Napoleon Bonaparte sieged Egypt (1798), but the French had trouble keeping it. Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt caused the Ottoman Empire to lose Egypt as a province. Mamluks, Muhammad Ali, rose to be governor of Egypt.

He reorganized Egypt’s army on a European model. Introduced the practice of “conscription” (compelling all men, to become soldiers).

Muhammad Ali son, Ibrahim, led an Egyptian force to seize Syria and Anatolia ( ). European powers forced the Egyptians to withdraw. Europeans allowed Muhammad Ali’s family to rule in Egypt until 1952.

High taxes forced peasants off their lands. Religious lands also came under government control. Government controlled cotton production. Revenue came for its export.

Ali pushed Egypt to industrialize. Textile factories built to compete with Britain. Armament factories in Cairo, shipyards in Alexandria. Called the first great modern ruler of Egypt.

Ali established schools and sent officers to France for education. Had texts translated from French to Arabic. Started an official newspaper (first in the Islamic world).

That concludes the Sick Old Man of Europe.