strategy Faersch and Kasper (1980): ”a potentially conscious plan for solving what to the individual presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular goal” Lőrcher (1991): ”a potentially consious procedure for the solution of a problem which an individual is faced with when translating a text segment from one language into another” 1compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Method, procedure, technique, plan, strategy method – concerned with a text as a whole, solving global problems Procedure – concerned with sentence and phrase level Technique – solving ‘local’ problems Plan – mental action, macroaction, global concept, Strategy - Lőrcher (1991), procedural knowledge, means of reaching a plan 2compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Idioms - Gottlieb 8 strategies (later 12), 4 relations and 3-grade scale of quality STRATEGIES 1.Congruence: SL i > identical TL i 2.Equivalence: SL i > similar TL i 3.Correspondence: SL i > different TL i 4.Reduction: SL i > TL word 5.Paraphrase: SL i > TL phrase 6.Expansion: SL i > TL circumlocution 7.Omission: SL i > 0 8.Compensation: SL non-i > TL idiom 3compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Gottlieb 2 - relations Adherence: congruence (i>identical i), equivalence (i>similar i), correspondence (i>different i)  [I > I] Literalisation: reduction (i>w), paraphrase (i>phrase), expansion (i>circumlocution)  [I > NI] Deletion: omission (i>0) Idiomatisation: compensation (ni>i) 4compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Gottlieb 3 – scale of quality Correspondent Insufficient Defective Based on the author’s subjective judgements, no definition provided by the author 5compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Gottlieb – 12 strategies (quality judements) based on a combination of 4 relations and scale of quality RELATION QUALITY STRATEGY Adherence correspondent transposition (i>i) insufficient emulation defective falsification Literalisation correspondent paraphrase (i>ni) insufficient reduction defective lesion Deletion correspondent elimination insufficient lacuna defective amputation Idiomatisation correspondent elaboration insufficient complication defective alienation 6compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Vinay and Darbelnet’s procedures and techniques (1958) Borrowing /loanword: holus-bolus (from Gr. Holus-’all’ and bolus ‘entire’; Eng. All together Calque – „special kind of borrowing”, an expression form is borrowed and next translated literally (each element); 2 subtypes: lexical and structural ; eg. "Alleinvertretungsanspruch" can be calqued to "single-representation-claim"Alleinvertretungsanspruch Literal translation = word-for-word translation, „ a direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text” 7compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Vinay and Darbelnet’s 2 procedures and techniques (1958) Transposition – „replacing one word class [lexical-syntactic] with another without changing the meaning” Modulation – „a variation of the form of the message, obtained by a change in the point of view” 8compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Ivir’s procedures (translation of culture) To resolve „differences in the extralinguistic reality of the two cultures” -Borrowing of SL expression -Definition –allows for what TL/C know „to make them aware of what they don’t know”, it’s „reducing the unknown to the known and the unshared to the shared” -Literal translation 9compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Ivir’s procedures - 2 (translation of culture) Substitution- used when two cultures display a partial overlap (rathern than complete absence/presence); „a source cultural element finds not an empty slot but sth like it” Lexical creation: 1. invention- football>Hr. Nogomet (foot=noga + met) 2. New collocations – soft drinks>Hr. Bezalkoholna piéa 3. Omission – guten apttit > En. ø 10compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Mailhac’s procedures (1996) cultural reference 3: Exoticism with minimum presence of the translator, exoticism with maximum presence of the translator, cultural transplantation CR parameters which influence procedures: - Cultural borrowing; literal translation; definition; cultural substitution; lexical creation (from Ivir); deliberate omission; compensation, combination of procedures; footnote 11compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Aixela’s procedures (1996) culture-specific items Shows degrees of intercultural manipulation (categorization of culture-specific items); conservation vs. substitution procedures CONSERVATION PROCEDURES 1.Repetition (leaving as much as possible from ST) 2.Orthographic adaptation (transliteration, transcription; Newmark’s naturalisation; Catford’s transference) 3.Linguistic (non-cultural) translation (word close to SL but with increased comprehensibility, TL version has obvious connotations with SL, e.g. 12compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Aixela’s procedures (1996) culture-specific items 2 4. Linguistic (non-cultural) translation (word close to SL but with increased comprehensibility, TL verstion has obvious connotations with SL, e.g. En. Grand Jury, Sp. Grand jurado (in US – wielka ława przysięgłych) 5. Extratextual gloss (footnote, endnote, commentary, translation in brackets, etc.) 6. Intratextual gloss (integral part of the text, e.g. St. Mark > Hotel St. Mark) 13compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Aixela’s procedures (1996) culture-specific items 3 SUTSTITUTION PROCEDURES Synonymy (Bacardi>Bacardi; Bacardi> rum; to avoid repetition) Limited universalisation (TW belongs to Source Culture but is closer to TC reader; eg. American football > balon de rugby Sp. Absolute universalisation (deleting any foreign connotations>neutral; corned beef (peklowana w puszcze)>loncha de jamon (slices of ham) Naturalisation (=Ivir’s substitution; =Vinay and Darbelnet’s adaptation; =Nemark’s cultural equivalent; Deletion 14compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Aixela’s procedures (1996) culture-specific items 4 Autonomous creation – putting in nonexistent cultural reference (source specific) in the S text Attentuation – replacing ‘too strong’ or unacceptable words by ‘softer’ words, on ideological grounds Compensation = deletion + autonomous creation 15compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Hervey and Higgins (1992) degrees of cultural transposition (DCT) DCT – degree of departure from literal translation, aim is to minimise the ‘foreign’ and naturalise to TL Exoticism-”resorts to linguistic and cultural strangeness” (p. 30) cultural transplantation-complete rewriting of the entire text for the T audience Cultural borrowing – transferring ST expression verbatim >TT 16compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Hervey and Higgins (1992) degrees of cultural transposition (DCT) 2 Calque (=literal translation) – „an expression that consists of TL words and respects TL syntax, but is unidiomatic in the TL because it is modelled on the structure of a SL expression” (p. 33). Bad calque: imitates SL structure to the point of being ungrammatical in the TL; good calque: reaches a compromise between a ST structure and TL grammar 17compiled by Anna Bączkowska

Hervey and Higgins (1992) degrees of cultural transposition (DCT) 3 Communicative translation – communicative equivalents: includes proverbs, idioms, conventional phrases (Beware of the dog > Vorsicht, bissiger Hund); c. paraphrase: set phrases of SL do not have communicative TL equivalents (=Newmark’s neutralisation) 18compiled by Anna Bączkowska