+ Chapter 11: Sexual Orientation and the Struggle for Equality “Homophobia alienates mother and fathers from sons and daughters, friend from friend, neighbor from neighbor, Americans from one another. So long as it is legitimated by society, religion, and politics, homophobia will spawn hatred, contempt, and violence, and it will remain our last acceptable prejudice.” --Byrne Fone, Author, Emeritus Professor

+ Chapter Outline The Global Context: A World View of the Status of Homosexuality Homosexuality and Bisexuality in the United States: A Demographic Overview The Origins of Sexual Orientation Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation Inequality Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All The Impact of the Media on Attitudes Toward Homosexuality

+ Introduction The term sexual orientation refers to a person’s emotional and sexual attractions, relationships, self-identity, and behavior. Heterosexuality refers to the predominance of emotional, cognitive, and sexual attraction to individuals of the other sex. Homosexuality refers to the predominance of emotional, cognitive, and sexual attraction to individuals of the same sex. Bisexuality is the emotional, cognitive, and sexual attraction to members of both sexes. The term lesbian refers to women who are attracted to same-sex partners. The term gay can refer to either women or men who are attracted to same-sex partners.

+ The Global Context: A World View of the Status of Homosexuality Homosexuality has existed throughout human history and in most, perhaps all, human societies. In 79 out of 242 countries throughout the world, homosexuality among males is illegal; in 45 of these countries, homosexuality among females is illegal. However, in general, countries throughout the world are moving toward increased legal protection of non-heterosexuals.

+ The Global Context: A World View of the Status of Homosexuality

+ What Do You Think?

+ The Global Context: A World View of the Status of Homosexuality In 2009, the United States joined the majority of the United Nations member states when President Barack Obama supported the decriminalization of homosexuality and the international expansion of human rights protections for those who are non- heterosexual or gender non-conforming. Gender Non-Conforming: Often used synonymously with transgender, gender non- conforming (sometimes called gender variant) refers to displays of gender that are inconsistent with society’s expectations.

+ Homosexuality and Bisexuality in the United States Sexual Orientation: Problems Associated with Identification and Classification The classification of individuals into sexual orientation categories (e.g., gay, bisexual, lesbian, or heterosexual) is problematic for a number of reasons. First, distinctions among sexual orientation categories are simply not as clear-cut as many people would believe. The second factor that makes classification difficult is that research with same-sex populations has tended to define sexual orientation based on one of three components: sexual/romantic attraction or arousal, sexual behavior, and sexual identity. Finally, the social stigma associated with non- heterosexual identities.

+ Homosexuality and Bisexuality in the United States The Prevalence of LGBT Individuals and Same-Sex Couple Households in the United States Reliable estimates of the percentage of the U.S. population that is gay, lesbian, or bisexual (LGB) are scarce. It is estimated that there are more than 8 million LGB adults in the United States, comprising 3.5 percent of the adult population. In addition, there are approximately 700,000 transgender (T) individuals in the United States. This means that approximately 9 million Americans identify as LGBT, a number nearly comparable to the total population of New Jersey.

+ Homosexuality and Bisexuality in the United States The Prevalence of LGBT Individuals and Same-Sex Couple Households in the United States

+ The Origins of Sexual Orientation In the absence of compelling findings, many practitioners and professionals believe that sexual orientation might be determined by the interplay of environmental and biological factors. Further, most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation.

+ The Origins of Sexual Orientation Currently, Americans are narrowly at odds over the factors that contribute to someone being gay – 42% attribute it to one’s upbringing and environment, while 40% believe that people are born gay or lesbian. Yet, long-term, there has been a significant shift away from the belief that homosexuality is a choice. In addition, Americans’ views on what causes non- heterosexual orientations appear to be the most strongly associated with their support for same-sex rights.

+ The Origins of Sexual Orientation

+ The Origins of Sexual Orientation Can Gays, Lesbians, and Bisexual Change Their Sexual Orientation? Those who believe that non-heterosexuals choose to have same-sex attractions tend to think that these individuals can and should change their sexual orientation. Various forms of reparative therapy, conversion therapy, and reorientation therapy are dedicated to changing the sexual orientation of individuals who are non-heterosexual. The American Psychological Association collectively refers to these “treatments” as sexual orientation change efforts.

+ The Origins of Sexual Orientation Can Gays, Lesbians, and Bisexual Change Their Sexual Orientation? Many conversion and reparative therapy programs view homosexuality as inherently immoral and/or pathological and allegedly achieve “conversion” to heterosexuality through embracing evangelical Christianity and being “born again.” Some “treatments” have gone to unethical extremes, using shame, physical punishment, and other abusive methods to “convert” those with same-sex attractions.

+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation Inequality Structural-Functionalist Perspective Structural functionalists, consistent with their emphasis on institutions and the functions they fulfill, emphasize the importance of monogamous heterosexual relationships for the reproduction, nurturance, and socialization of children.

+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation Inequality Structural-Functionalist Perspective From a structural-functionalist perspective, homosexual relations, as well as heterosexual non-marital relations, are “deviant” because they do not fulfill the main function of the family institution—producing and rearing children. Clearly, however, this argument is less salient in a society in which (1) other institutions, most notably schools, have supplemented the traditional functions of the family, (2) reducing (rather than increasing) population is a societal goal, and (3) same-sex couples can and do raise children.

+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation Inequality Structural-Functionalist Perspective

+ The structural-functionalist perspective is also concerned with latent functions, or unintended consequences. A latent function of the gay rights movement is increased opposition to gay rights.

+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation Inequality Conflict Perspective The conflict perspective frames the gay rights movement and the opposition to it as a struggle over power, prestige, and economic resources. Conflict theory helps to explain why many business owners and corporate leaders support nondiscrimination policies: It is good for the “bottom line.” The majority (89%) of Fortune 500 companies have included sexual orientation in their nondiscrimination policies.

+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation Inequality Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Symbolic interactionism focuses on the meanings of heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality; how these meanings are socially constructed; and how they influence the social status, self-concepts, and well-being of non-heterosexual individuals. The negative meanings associated with homosexuality are reflected in the current slang. The symbolic interactionist perspective also points to the effects of labeling on individuals. Once individuals become identified or labeled as lesbian, gay, or bisexual, that label tends to become their master status.

+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation Inequality Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Symbolic interactionism draws attention to how social interaction affects our self-concept, behavior, and well- being. When gay and lesbian individuals interact with people who express antigay attitudes, they may develop what is known as internalized homophobia (or internalized heterosexism)—the internalization of negative messages about homosexuality by lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals as a result of direct or indirect social rejection and stigmatization. Internalized homophobia has been linked to increased risk for depression, substance abuse, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts.

+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Oppression refers to the use of power to create inequality and limit access to resources, which impedes the physical and/or emotional well-being of individuals or groups of people. A person or group is privileged when they have a special advantage or benefits as a result of cultural, economic, societal, legal, and political factors. Heterosexism is a form of oppression and refers to a belief system that gives power and privilege to heterosexuals, while depriving, oppressing, stigmatizing, and devaluing people who are not heterosexual. Prejudice refers to negative attitudes, whereas discrimination refers to behavior that denies individuals or groups equality of treatment.

+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Homophobia and Biphobia The term homophobia is commonly used to refer to negative or hostile attitudes directed toward same-sex sexual behavior, a non- heterosexually identified individual, and communities of non-heterosexuals. When prejudice is directed toward bisexual individuals, this is called biphobia. Both heterosexuals and non-heterosexuals often reject bisexuals; thus, bisexual men and women can experience “double discrimination.”

+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Homophobia and Biphobia

+

+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Cultural Origins of Anti-LGB Bias Religion Research has found that higher levels of religiosity are strongly associated with negative attitudes toward homosexuality, religious fundamentalism, and more conservative political beliefs. Many religious leaders teach that homosexuality is sinful and prohibited by God. Example: the Westboro Baptist Church (WBC), Reverend Phelps and his followers picket funerals of American servicemen and servicewomen, saying that U.S. military casualties are God’s way of punishing the United States for being “nice” to lesbians and gays. The group also maintains a website called godhatesfags.com.

+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Cultural Origins of Anti-LGB Bias GodHatesFags.com is a website maintained by Westboro Baptist Church. The church teaches that homosexuality is an abomination.

+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Cultural Origins of Anti-LGB Bias Rigid Gender Roles Disapproval of homosexuality also stems from rigid gender roles. Kimmel (2011), a sociologist who specializes in research on masculinity, writes about the relationship between perceived masculinity and bullying: “Calling someone gay or a fag has become so universal that it’s become synonymous with dumb, stupid or wrong.”

+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Cultural Origins of Anti-LGB Bias Myths and Negative Stereotypes The stigma associated with homosexuality and bisexuality can also stem from myths and negative stereotypes. One negative myth about non-heterosexuals is that they are sexually promiscuous and lack “family values.” Between 64% and 80% of lesbians, and between 46% and 60% of gay men, report that they are in a committed relationship at any given time.

+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Cultural Origins of Anti-LGB Bias Myths and Negative Stereotypes Another myth is that non-heterosexuals, as a group, are a threat to children—most notably child molestation. Having a non-heterosexual orientation is a separate issue from when an adult acts on inappropriate impulses with a youth who is not legally capable of consenting to sex. Research has not demonstrated a connection between an adult’s same-sex attraction and an increased likelihood of molesting.

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Workplace Discrimination and Harassment Most U.S. adults (89%) agree that LGB individuals should have equal job opportunities. Yet, it is still legal in 29 states to fire, decline to hire or promote, or otherwise discriminate against employees because of their sexual orientation and, in 35 states, it remains legal to discriminate against an employee for being transgender.

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Workplace Discrimination and Harassment

+

+ What Do You Think?

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Marriage Inequality In 1996, Congress passed and President Clinton signed the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which (1) states that marriage is a “legal union between one man and one woman”; (2) denies federal recognition of same-sex marriage; and (3) allows states to either recognize or not recognize same-sex marriages performed in other states.

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Marriage Inequality Approximately 50,000 same-sex couples have been legally married, according to administrative data from the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Iowa, Vermont, and New Hampshire, as well as estimates for same-sex couples marrying in California and the District of Columbia. As many as 30,000 same-sex couples might have married in other countries (e.g., Canada). Another 85,000 same-sex couples have entered civil unions or domestic partnerships in Vermont, California, New Jersey, Oregon, New Hampshire, Washington, and Nevada. These numbers do not take into account the number of same- sex marriages that have taken place following the June 2011 New York State ruling that permits same-sex marriages.

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Marriage Inequality

+ Approximately 50,000 same-sex couples have been legally married, according to administrative data from the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Iowa, Vermont, and New Hampshire, as well as estimates for same-sex couples marrying in California and the District of Columbia. As many as 30,000 same-sex couples might have married in other countries (e.g., Canada). Another 85,000 same-sex couples have entered civil unions or domestic partnerships in Vermont, California, New Jersey, Oregon, New Hampshire, Washington, and Nevada. These numbers do not take into account the number of same- sex marriages that have taken place following the June 2011 New York State ruling that permits same-sex marriages.

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Marriage Inequality Arguments Against Same-Sex Marriage Opponents argue that granting legal status to same-sex unions would convey social acceptance of homosexuality and would thus teach youth to view homosexuality as an acceptable lifestyle. They are also concerned that if same-sex marriages are legalized, schools would be pressured to treat LGB individuals as any other minority group resulting in, for example, classes on gay history, gay literature, and the like.

+ What Do You Think?

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Marriage Inequality Arguments in Favor of Same-Sex Marriage Advocates of same-sex marriage argue that banning same-sex marriages or refusing to recognize same-sex marriages granted in other states is a violation of civil rights that denies same- sex couples the countless legal and financial benefits that are granted to heterosexual married couples. Another argument for same-sex marriage is that it would promote relationship stability among gay and lesbian couples.

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Children and Parental Rights According to a recent poll, since 2007, the percentage of Americans saying that the increasing number of gay couples raising children is a “bad thing” has fallen from 50 percent to 35 percent. Over 25 years of scholarly research on the children of non-heterosexual parents has yielded clear and consistent results that irrespective of whether children were from divorced lesbian and gay parents or born to lesbian or gay parents, studies have shown that these children are at least as well adjusted overall as those from opposite-sex parents.

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Children and Parental Rights

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Violence, Hate, and Criminal Victimization On October 6, 1998, Matthew Shepard, a 21-year- old student at the University of Wyoming, was abducted and brutally beaten. Media coverage of his brutal attack and subsequent death focused nationwide attention on hate crimes against non- heterosexuals. According to the FBI, 18.5% of reported hate crimes in 2009 were motivated by sexual orientation bias involving 1,436 victims. Over half (55.6%) of the incidents were motivated by antigay male bias.

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Violence, Hate, and Criminal Victimization Anti-LGB Hate and Harassment in Schools and on Campuses Multiple suicides by LGBT youth has provoked a nationwide dialogue about bullying, sexual orientation, and gender expression. Gender expression refers to how a person presents her- or himself to society as a gendered individual. A person may have a gender identity as male but nonetheless present their gender as female for any number of reasons. A national survey of students ages 13 through 18 and their teachers found that actual or perceived sexual orientation is one of the most common reasons that students are harassed by their peers, second only to physical appearance.

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Violence, Hate, and Criminal Victimization

percent of LGBT students reported being verbally harassed, 40.1 percent reported being physically harassed, and 18.8 percent reported being physically assaulted at school in the past year because of their sexual orientation percent heard homophobic remarks, such as “faggot” or “dyke,” frequently or often at school. Nearly two-thirds (61.1 percent) of students reported that they felt unsafe in school because of their sexual orientation. 30 percent of LGBT students missed at least one day of school in the previous month because of safety concerns.

+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals Violence, Hate, and Criminal Victimization The minority stress theory explains that when an individual experiences the social environment as emotionally or physically threatening due to social stigma, the result is an increased risk for mental health problems.

+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All Many of the efforts to change policies and attitudes regarding non-heterosexuals and gender non- conforming individuals have been spearheaded by organizations that specifically advocate for LGBT rights including: Human Rights Campaign (HRC), the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (NGLTF), Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD), International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA)

+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All

+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All Gays, Lesbians, and the Media The media has been instrumental in the lives of LGBT individuals for several reasons. First, it has provided LGBT individuals, most importantly youth, role models for “coming out.” National Coming Out Day The media has also provided examples of the increasing social disapproval of LGB prejudice. Social media has been important in addressing the needs of LGBT youth who feel the effects of minority stress.

+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All Gays, Lesbians, and the Media

+ Since the 1990’s, gay and lesbian characters and personalities of various ages have been increasingly more visible on television.

+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All Ending Workplace Discrimination The Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA), a proposed federal bill that would protect LGBT individuals from workplace discrimination, has been debated in Congress since 1994, but has never been signed into law. Nearly 200 cities and counties prohibit sexual orientation discrimination in the public sector. Don’t Ask Don’t Tell: Not long after a poll revealed that the majority of Americans (67 percent) supported repealing DADT, DADT was repealed by the Senate and subsequently signed into law by President Obama in December 2010.

+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All Law and Public Policy Marriage Equality 2004, Massachusetts became the first state to recognize same-sex marriage. Several other states have followed suit. Some states have civil unions - a legal status parallel to civil marriage under state law, and entitles same-sex couples to almost all of the rights and responsibilities available under state law to opposite-sex married couples. Some states, counties, cities, and workplaces allow unmarried couples, including gay couples, to register as domestic partners Respect for Marriage Act (RMA)

+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All Law and Public Policy Parental Rights: Large national organizations such as the Child Welfare League of America, the National Association of Social Workers, the American Psychological Association, and the American Bar Association all support the suitability of qualified unmarried and non-heterosexual couples to foster and adopt children. Every Child Deserves a Family Act Hate Crime Legislation: As of June 2009, 31 states and the District of Columbia had hate crime laws that include sexual orientation, 14 states had hate crime laws that did not include sexual orientation, and 5 states had no hate crime laws Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act (HCPA)

+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All Law and Public Policy

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+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All Educational Strategies and Activism The censorship of LGBT current issues, historical figures and events, and sexual health in both the classroom and in school libraries is a heated debate across the nation. Eighteen states and the District of Columbia have laws that prohibit discrimination, harassment, and/or bullying of students based on sexual orientation—16 of those also prohibit prejudice and discrimination based on gender identity.

+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All Educational Strategies and Activism A number of programs exist that aim to create a “harassment-free” climate and promote understanding and acceptance of sexual orientation and gender diversity in the K–12 school setting. Many LGBT-affirmative and educational initiatives of middle and high schools also occur on college campuses. Student groups in higher education (i.e., colleges and universities) have been active in the gay liberation movement since the 1960s.

+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All Educational Strategies and Activism Gay-Straight Alliances (GSAs): School-sponsored clubs led by middle or high schools, that strive to address anti-LGBT name-calling and promote respect for all students. National Day of Silence: A day during which students do not speak in recognition of the daily harassment that LBGT students endure.

+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All Educational Strategies and Activism

+ Understanding Sexual Orientation and the Struggle for Equality In recent years, a growing acceptance of lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals as well as increased legal protection and recognition of these marginalized populations has been witnessed. “Gay Pride” Celebrations are marches, demonstrations, or other cultural activities promoting gay rights, are important in organizing gay activists, but cannot be used as substitutes for “conventional, boring, but essential” political participation.

+ Understanding Sexual Orientation and the Struggle for Equality As both structural functionalists and conflict theorists note, non-heterosexuality challenges traditional definitions of family, child rearing, and gender roles. As symbolic interactionists note, the meanings associated with homosexuality are learned. Powerful individuals and groups opposed to gay rights focus their efforts on maintaining the negative meanings of homosexuality to keep the gay, lesbian, and bisexual population marginalized. But political efforts to undermine gay rights and recognition must realize that prejudice and discrimination against individuals based on statuses over which research suggests they have no control hurts everyone.

+ Quick Quiz 1. Negative viewpoints about homosexuality suggest homosexuals are promiscuous, and avoid having committed relationships: A. is supported by most of the systematic research on this subject. B. is inconsistent with findings showing many if not most homosexuals remaining in committed relationships. C. has not been investigated in systematic research. D. has been proven by the evidence of high transmission rates of AIDS/HIV among the gay and lesbian population.

+ Answer: B Negative viewpoints about homosexuality suggesting that homosexuals usually are sexually promiscuous, and tend to avoid having enduring or committed relationships is inconsistent with findings showing many if not most homosexuals remaining in committed relationships.

+ Quick Quiz 2. Approximately, how many Americans identify as LGBT? A. 700,000 B. 4,000,000 C. 9,000,000 D. 13,000,000

+ Answer: C Approximately, 9 million Americans identify as LGBT…this roughly the population of New Jersey.

+ Quick Quiz 3. According to the structural functionalist perspective, why are homosexual relations considered deviant? A. Homosexual behavior exacerbates sexually transmitted diseases. B. They do not fulfill the family institution's main purpose of producing offspring. C. None of these choices. D. The dominant sexual orientation is heterosexuality.

+ Answer: B According to the structural functionalist perspective, homosexual relations are considered deviant because they do not fulfill the family institution's main purpose of producing offspring.

+ Quick Quiz 4. Negative attitudes toward bisexuality and people who identify as bisexual is known as biphobia. A. True B. False

+ Answer: A. True Negative attitudes toward bisexuality and people who identify as bisexual is known as biphobia.