Short Answer Questions

 Short Answer Questions are marked out of 15 5 marks for knowledge/understanding ; 7 marks for analysis and evaluation ; 3 marks for quality of communication.  You should spend 15 mins on each answer – 250 to 300 words.  Questions may have two parts eg: How and why (answer both) not  Answers should be concise – you do not need an introduction or a conclusion. The questions focus on narrow parts of the specification – this will usually require a definition and explaining why or how concept you are looking at is important.  Answers require precise definitions, an accurate use of terminology, supporting facts, quotations and names.  Unit 4 liberalism, conservatism and socialism. within  Unit 4 examines ideological traditions that have developed out of, or emerged in opposition to, liberalism, conservatism and socialism. Questions in Unit 4 are more likely to look at links/criticisms associated with liberalism, conservatism and socialism than comparing topics within Unit 4.

Short answer questions are likely to focus on:  Different views of the world/politic s  Deep and shallow ecologism  Environmental ethics  Difficulties in achieving ‘green goals’  Different types of Ecologism  Different types of Ecologism (eco-socialism, eco- anarchism, eco-feminism. These questions are more likely if there is no essay on ecologism)  Links with other ideologies  Links with other ideologies (conservatism, fascism and liberalism. These questions are more likely to be set if there is no essay on ecologism)

Questions on different views of the world/politics Typical questions:  How do ecologists view nature, and what implications does this view have what implications does this view have for the economy? for the economy?  What is anthropocentrism and why do ecologists object to anthropocentrism? ecologists object to anthropocentrism?  What is industrialism, and why have ecologists criticised industrialism?

How do ecologists view nature, How do ecologists view nature, and what implications does this view have for the economy? interconnected whole made up of humans, non-humans inanimate world. Ecologists, particularly ‘deep ecologists’, see nature as an interconnected whole made up of humans, non-humans and the inanimate world. ecocentric view All This ecocentric view does not give any priority to humanity. All plants and animals are sustained by self-regulating systems (ecosystems). Thus humans need to live in harmony with nature rather than dominate it. contrasts with the conventional anthropocentric view (this contrasts with the conventional anthropocentric view that nature is a resource that exists to satisfy human needs)

what implications does this view have for the economy? How do ecologists view nature, and what implications does this view have for the economy? this question focuses on the implications for the economy. Although the ecologist view of nature has implications for the way we view what is ethical, this question focuses on the implications for the economy. The ecologist view of nature implies:  there are limits to growth  there are limits to growth (can mention Limits to Growth Report, ‘spaceship earth’ entropy etc)  a commitment to sustainability  a commitment to sustainability (can mention Schumacher and Small is Beautiful) Dark greens anti-growth outlook, shallow greens sustainable growth. Dark greens are associated with an anti-growth outlook, shallow greens are associated with sustainable growth.

What is anthropocentrism and why do ecologists object to anthropocentrism? Anthropocentrism is the belief that human need is of overriding moral and philosophical importance. Only the human species has intrinsic (essential) value. Non human nature only has value to the extent it is valuable to us. The natural world thus exists to serve the needs of humankind. Concern for ourselves at the expense of concern for the non-human world is the basic cause of environmental damage and will lead to disaster. Ecologists put forward the idea of ecocentism.

What is industrialism, What is industrialism, and why have ecologists criticised industrialism? industrialismsuper ideology Greens see industrialism as part of the ‘ super ideology ’ which associated is with all mainstream ideologies. It is linked with:  a commitment to economic growth  support for large scale production  a belief in the overriding importance of materialism  an absolute belief in science and technology  an anthropocentric view of the world

and why have ecologists criticised industrialism? What is industrialism, and why have ecologists criticised industrialism? Criticisms include it is based on: anthropocentric view treat nature as nothing more than a resource to satisfy humans  an anthropocentric view of the world which encourages people to treat nature as nothing more than a resource to satisfy humans relentless pursuit of economic growth and materialism. environmental problems destroy the fragile ecosystem that sustains all life.  the relentless pursuit of economic growth and materialism. This results in environmental problems such as the depletion of resources. Unchecked this will destroy the fragile ecosystem that sustains all life.

Distinguish between ‘deep’ Distinguish between ‘deep’ and ‘shallow’ ecology Deep ecology is a branch of ecologism which seeks a complete re-orientation of human social and political life in order to achieve a new balance with nature. Most environmental protection is only ‘skin deep’; the only way to deal with current environmental damage is to create a whole new ay of life. This involves developing environmental ethics and taking a holistic approach. Deep green societies will be small scale, decentralised and self-sufficient.

Distinguish between ‘deep’ and ‘shallow’ ecology Shallow ecologism is a less radical form of ecologism. It still paces the needs of humans above those of nature, but sees that human survival requires a series of major changes to how humans approach the environment. Shallow ecologism is associated with ideas such as sustainable development and conservation. Unlike deep ecologism, shallow ecologism is compatible with a number of other conventional ideologies

Questions on different types of difficulties in achieving ‘green goals’ Typical questions:  Why is it difficult to achieve ecological goals by democratic means?  Why, and how, is ecologism associated with authoritarianism?

Why is it difficult to achieve ecological goals Why is it difficult to achieve ecological goals by democratic means? You need to explain ecological goals before looking at why they are difficult to achieve by democratic means. Ecological goals are linked to an ecocentric outlook and a rejection of anthropocentrism. This would involve:  radical change carried out quickly. For example, cutting population size and reducing consumption  a complete re-organisation of society. Ecologism is associated with self-sufficient decentralised communities

by democratic means? Why is it difficult to achieve ecological goals by democratic means? Ecologists tend to be much more critical of representative democracy than of direct democracy. Ecological goals are difficult to achieve through conventional democratic processes because:  Electoral competition encourages parties to compete by offering greater economic growth and consumerism.  Also radical change is needed, but parties need to compromise in order to win votes.  Policies now have an impact on the environment now and in the future but governments generally focus on the short term (4- 5 year electoral cycle). Many of those affected (future generations and the non-human world) do not have a vote!  Many environmental problems are international in character but democratic structures and processes are mainly based around the nation-state.

Why, and how, is ecologism associated with authoritarianism? Authoritarianism involves political rule being imposed from above without consent. Ecologism is associated with authoritarianism because:  radical change needs to be carried out quickly in order to deal with the severe environmental crisis. For example, cutting population size and reducing consumption. The only way to do this is by imposing restrictions on people, eg by limiting family size. Democratic approaches are ineffective.  of links between fasicsm and ecologism. authoritarian.  of links between fasicsm and ecologism. Nazism tended to be critical of urbanisation and industrialisation and focused more on the past and ties to the land (peasant ideology) but it was also authoritarian. There things which ecologism and fascism do not have in common, eg aggressive nationalism.

Questions on environmental ethics Have ecologists revised conventional notions of morality? Conventional notions of morality are anthropocentric and therefore place the interests of humans above those of the natural world.This, ecologists argue, provides a moral justification for environmental destruction. Eg, Utilitarianism through the idea of ‘economic man’, has encouraged the belief that the natural world constitutes nothing more that a resource available to satisfy the interests of current human generations, regardless of the impact on other species, later generations, or nature itself. Conventional notions of morality are anthropocentric and therefore place the interests of humans above those of the natural world. This, ecologists argue, provides a moral justification for environmental destruction. Eg, Utilitarianism through the idea of ‘economic man’, has encouraged the belief that the natural world constitutes nothing more that a resource available to satisfy the interests of current human generations, regardless of the impact on other species, later generations, or nature itself. Ecologists have therefore revised these ideas in a variety of ways. These include that utilitarianism has been extended to cover other sentient species ; that ‘future generations’ have been invested with moral rights and, most importantly, that nature has been recognised as having value in itself, intrinsic value. These include that utilitarianism has been extended to cover other sentient species ; that ‘future generations’ have been invested with moral rights, and, most importantly, that nature has been recognised as having value in itself, intrinsic value.

Questions on different types of Ecologism Typical questions:  Explain the ideas of eco-socialism.  Why have ‘deep’ ecologists criticised eco- socialism?  Why might eco-socialism be considered a contradiction in terms?  What is eco-feminism?  What links are there between ecologism and anarchism?

Explain the ideas of eco-socialism. Eco-socialism is based on the idea that capitalism is the enemy of the environment, while socialism is its friend. Capitalism is characterised by the destruction of the environment, as both human labour and the natural world are exploited because they are treated simply as economic resources. Such tendencies spring from the existence of private property which legitimises human domination over nature, and it is encouraged by the profit motive competition both of which emphasise the importance of economic concerns over environmental ones. Eco-socialism is based on the idea that capitalism is the enemy of the environment, while socialism is its friend. Capitalism is characterised by the destruction of the environment, as both human labour and the natural world are exploited because they are treated simply as economic resources. Such tendencies spring from the existence of private property, which legitimises human domination over nature, and it is encouraged by the profit motive and competition, both of which emphasise the importance of economic concerns over environmental ones. Eco-socialists argue that socialism is naturally ecological wealth is owned in common it will be used in the interests of all Eco-socialists argue that socialism is naturally ecological. If wealth is owned in common it will be used in the interests of all rather than in the interests of the ruling class or a capitalist elite. This means that it will be used in the long-term interests of humanity, taking account of the ecological impact of economic activity. NB: you don’t have to explain tensions that exist between ecologism and socialism.

Why have ‘deep’ ecologists criticised eco-socialism? This question requires :  an outline of what eco-socialism is  A brief description of the term ‘deep’ ecologism  ‘deep’ ecologists argue socialism is part of the super ideology of industrialisation and is anthropocentric.Socialism is thus no more ecologically sound than capitalism.  ‘deep’ ecologists argue socialism is part of the super ideology of industrialisation and is anthropocentric. Socialism is thus no more ecologically sound than capitalism. Can use examples such as the Chernobyl disaster Why might eco-socialism be considered a contradiction in terms? This question is similar to the question above. It requires an explanation of what eco-socialism. The contradiction relates to the fact that socialism is part of the super ideology of industrialisation and is anthropocentric.

What is eco-feminism? women are closer to nature than men and would be better protectors of the environment. Eco-feminism is based on the idea women are closer to nature than men and would be better protectors of the environment. Ecological problems have their origins in patriarchy. For some feminists, men and women are essentially the same (androgyny). However socially created gender differences have resulted in men becoming divorced from the ‘private’ world of nurturing and home making. Women’s nurturing role provides them with values, eg caring and compassion, which contribute towards a greater feeling for /understanding of the natural world. However, most eco-feminists are difference feminists - innate biological differences mean women have a greater affinity towards the environment than men. Men are characterised by intellect over intuition, materialism over spirituality, and a mechanical view of the world over a holistic one. Patriarchy thus results in men having a disregard for nature.

Essay Questions

 Essays require broader knowledge than short answer questions, but your answer still needs to be focused. Questions will be open ended - they may permit two or more legitimate answers.  Answers should have a beginning (introduction), a middle (argument) and an end (conclusion)  Introduction should:  Define key terms used in the question  Show an understanding of the point of the question  Outline argument to be adopted/conclusion favoured. This is optional  Argument should:  Make points in a logically related order  Consider contrasting viewpoints (for/against, +s/-s, benefits/drawbacks)  Support points with appropriate evidence (make a point and prove it)  Qualify points where appropriate (however, on the other hand etc)  Conclusions  Are needed (do not ‘sit on the fence’ unless the question invites you to)  Should be short and clear. Start with a one sentence answer to the question set (in conclusion…)  Summarise key factors that support your conclusion (no new material)

Ecologism essays tend to focus on two main areas:  the relationship between humans and nature/natural world  ecologism and links with other ideologies

‘Ecologism implies a radically different relationship between humankind and the natural world.’ Discuss. This essay requires:  An explanation of the ecocentrism and anthropocentrism  A distinction between ‘deep’ and ‘shallow’ ecology  An outline of the implications of a ‘deep’ ecological approach in terms of things such as: economic organisation, (zero economic growth and complete economic restructuring focusing on small scale etc) economic organisation, (zero economic growth and complete economic restructuring focusing on small scale etc) environmental ethics environmental ethics  a recognition that ‘shallow’ ecologism will result in less radical change.

‘Ecologism fundamentally rejects all conventional political creeds.’ Discuss This essay requires an understanding that while ‘deep’ ecologism rejects all conventional political creeds, ‘shallow’ ecologism has drawn on ideas from creeds such as conservatism fascism, socialism, anarchism and feminism. As a result ‘fused creeds such as eco-socialism and eco-feminism have developed. Good answers will:  Clearly explain the difference between an ecocentric and an anthropocentric view  Clearly explain the difference between an ecocentric and an anthropocentric view (giving examples of how ideologies such as socialism and liberalism are anthropocentric) why why they may not  Explain why certain creeds are hospitable to ecological ideas and why they may not be completely hospitable.

‘The goals of ecologism can only be achieved through radical social change.’ Discuss. radical social change The key aspect in this essay is understanding the term ‘ radical social change ’ – this refers to social ecology. Altering the relationship between humans and nature through radical social change is associated with:  Eco-socialists  Eco-anarchists  Eco-feminists However However, radical social change has been rejected in two main ways: shallow ecologists gradual reforms  some shallow ecologists believe that ecological concerns can be met through gradual reforms, which are compatible with economic growth and the maintenance of the capitalist system.  Deep ecologists paradigm change ecocentrism, different view of ethics, holism, the nature of human fulfilment.  Deep ecologists do not believe radical social change is enough. What is needed is a paradigm change. This will result in a complete change in relationship people have with nature, eg ecocentrism, different view of ethics, holism, the nature of human fulfilment.