Quick review and some new things… Qualitative Research Quick review and some new things… BREAK DOWN Lesson 1 – General Qualitative Stuff Lesson 2 – Observations & Case Studies Lesson 3 – Interviews Lesson 4 – Inductive Content Analysis FORMAT Readings Kahoot Theory Application

Qualitative Research Methodology Outline Theory and practice in qualitative research Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data. Explain strengths and limitations of a qualitative approach to research. To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies? Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research. Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research (for example, purposive sampling, snowball sampling). Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research. Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative research. Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research. Explain reflexivity in qualitative research. Interviews Evaluate semi‑structured, focus group and narrative interviews. Discuss considerations involved before, during and after an interview (for example, sampling method, data recording, traditional versus postmodern transcription, debriefing). Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) on interview transcripts. Observations Evaluate participant, non‑participant, naturalistic, overt and covert observations. Discuss considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation (for example, audience effect, Hawthorne effect, disclosure). Discuss how researchers analyse data obtained in observational research. Case studies Evaluate the use of case studies in research. Explain how a case study could be used to investigate a problem in an organization or group (for example, a football team, a school, a family). Discuss the extent to which findings can be generalized from a single case study.

Theory and practice in qualitative research The big 6: Reflexivity Credibility Triangulation Transferability Dependability Confirmability Vocabulary Words used in Qualitative Research

Procedure 2 mins to think and get ready – THINK (2 mins) Number ___ - explains his/her thoughts while others LISTEN (1.5 mins) Number ___ - Adds to explanation of first person while others LISTEN (1.5 mins) Number ___ - Be ready to SHARE with the class what others and you discussed/thought (1.5 mins)

Reflexivity Reflexivity is the awareness of how the researcher’s involvement (bias) in the study will have an effect on the outcome (results) of the study. It is important for the experimenter to be aware of/know how their own true self in turn may affect research.

Reflexivity Another definition to consider: A process which challenges the researcher to clearly and transparently consider how his or her own preconceived ideas have influenced the outcomes. Research agenda Assumptions Subject location(s) Personal beliefs (Ethnic/Cultural/Religious…etc) Emotions and mood You should refer to this as a process of doing or having reflexive practice within research… Similar to researcher bias, but not quite the same because it is a published admission of engaging in the process.

Scenarios 2 Asian female researcher investigating the effects of culture on education 1 Older researcher investigating the effect of technology on teenagers 3 Young researcher investigates the effects of violence on self esteem 4 White male researcher investigating the equality of job opportunities

Triangulation Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research. Triangulation is the application and combination of several research methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon. There are four basic types of triangulation. Data triangulation Investigator triangulation Theory triangulation Methodological triangulation Multiple triangulation involves a combination of the four basic types.

Triangulation Data Triangulation Investigator Triangulation Theory Triangulation Methodological Triangulation

Credibility DEFINITION Does the participant(s) think the results are believable? Has the researcher undertaken sensible measures to create an objective study? Establish that the results of qualitative research are credible or believable from the perspective of the participant in the research. Since the purpose of qualitative research is to describe or understand the phenomena of interest from the participant's eyes, the participants are the only ones who can legitimately judge the credibility of the results.

Credibility Credibility HOW TO ACHIEVE The researcher must leave a ‘decision trail’ of information that documents the study from design, collection, analysis and interpretation of data. This must then be linked back to participant expectations in order to present a true image of the topic of investigation. Credibility includes ideas such as reflexivity, researcher bias, trustworthiness and triangulation under its umbrella. It is the equivalent of internal validity in collecting quatitative data Credibility Trustworthiness Triangulation Researcher Bias Reflexivity

Transferability Refers to whether or not a study can be applied to settings outside of its original context. Another way to consider how if/when findings can and should be generalized. SAME – Inferential Generalization (applying the findings to settings outside of the study) DIFFERENT – Representational Generalization (applying the findings to a different population outside of the study). DIFFERENT – Theoretical Generalization (applying the findings to different theories or further develop other theories).

Dependability Experimenter/researchers must acknowledge what variables exist in the research context and how they might of affected the research. It is important to note that most qualitative data is an attempt to choose a specific population and propose/examine a specific context or theory. By design, most qualitative data is context specific and NOT intended to be generalized. DIFFERENT than Quantitative - in qualitative data a study cannot be expected to yield the same results each time, even in an exact replication of the study. - due to multiple factors in the environment and in individuals. Researchers consider the ‘tools and instruments’ used in their qualitative approach and report on how these instruments may have influenced the data obtained. In this sense, dependability is the counter-balance to reliability in quantitative data.

Confirmability Researchers should discuss the potential subjectivity and look for ways in which similar studies have yielded opposing results. This can then be discussed and analyzed in a way which considers the ability to generalize the findings of a specific set of results. Confirmability is in many ways an extension of Dependability…almost as if the idea of Dependability were tested and reported on as a process. Again, if the goal of collecting qualitative data is to examine and consider all of the above in relation to a specific population (and to understand a potential relationship, not to attribute causality), then subjectivity is paramount. The process of considering this subjectivity is called Confirmability. Confirmability is the equivalent albeit opposite of Objectivity in quantitative data.

Theory and practice in qualitative research The big 6: Reflexivity Credibility Triangulation Transferability Dependability Confirmability Vocabulary Words used in Qualitative Research

Theory and practice in qualitative research To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies? A generalization is a decision or judgement about how widely the findings of a study can be applied to the population from which the sample was drawn. How can generalizations from qualitative research be made? According to Lewis and Richie (2003): Inferential Generalization (applying the findings to settings outside of the study) Representational Generalization (applying the findings to a different population outside of the study). Theoretical Generalization (applying the findings to different theories or further develop other theories). Can/should use the BIG 6 to develop this…

Some practice – If you interviewed a sample of 10 participants of the target population… To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies? Inferential Generalization (applying the findings to settings outside of the study) Representational Generalization (applying the findings to a different population outside of the study). Theoretical Generalization (applying the findings to different theories or further develop other theories). Are teenagers less sexually active now than ten years ago? Are men prejudiced about women in managerial positions? How effective has the IB program been in local secondary schools? What causes children to be truant from school?

Theory and practice in qualitative research Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data. Qualitative Data Qualitative methods are ways of collecting data which are concerned with describing meaning, rather than with drawing statistical inferences. What qualitative methods (e.g. case studies and interviews) lose on reliability they gain in terms of validity. They provide a more in depth and rich description. Quantitative Data This type of data is often collected in experiments, manipulated and statistically analysed. Quantitative data can be represented visually in graphs, histograms, tables and charts.

Theory and practice in qualitative research Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research. The participants (or subjects) which are to be used are called a sample. To obtain sample researchers must first identify the target population. This is the whole group with which the study is concerned. Psychologists try not to use a biased sample -that is a sample that is not representative. Use, context, strengths and weaknesses should be identified when mentioning sampling techniques…don’t just list the, USE them. Random sampling Systematic sampling Stratified sampling Opportunity sampling Self-selected samples Snowball samples

Theory and practice in qualitative research Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research. Participant Expectations Or demand characteristics - features of an experiment which help participants work out what is expected of them, and consequently lead them to behave in artificial ways. Research Bias Researcher expectancies happen when the observer comes to the investigation with an inbuilt bias that influences his/her interpretation of the data. Candidates should indicate that this means that the research findings are likely to go in a predetermined direction.

Observation Participant Non-Participant Naturalistic Controlled Overt Process of observing (watching and analyzing) behavior of an individual or a group to get first-hand information Participant Non-Participant Naturalistic Controlled Overt Covert

Observation SCENARIO Investigating street gang violence in New York City To consider: Method to use (overt, covert, participant…) Ethical consideration (consent, debriefing…) Sampling method (stratified, snowball, opportunity…) Data recording (field notes, video, audio…) Observer characteristics (match to target group) Degree of involvement (mostly for covert + participant type) Objectivity of researcher (if long, more chances of subjectivity) Analysis of data (inductive vs conductive data analysis)

Observation SCENARIO Investigating street gang violence in New York City

Case Studies Usually used to investigate specific problems In-depth investigation of human experience called ‘a case’. Aim is to understand the phenomena from the perspective of the participant. Usually used to investigate specific problems Used to investigate sensitive topics How much can we generalize? Inferential generalization Theory generalization Representational generalization

* * Interviews Semi-structured interview Focus group interview Meeting with a participant either face-to-face or otherwise to ask questions and record their answers in order to collect information on a given topic. * Semi-structured interview Some questions are prepared beforehand but allows flexibility Focus group interview Group of people are interviewed at the same time Interaction between interviewer and among the group Narrative interview One primary question is asked to start the narration from P Other questions can be asked, but only for precision * Structured interview – all questions are prepared beforehand (cannot be modified) Unstructured interview – no question are prepared beforehand (improvised)

Interviews Method of interview Interviewer Sampling Data Recording BEFORE DURING AFTER Method of interview Interviewer Sampling Data Recording Transcription Ethics Reflexivity Establish rapport Data recording Active listening Professional approach Debriefing Confidentiality Credibility check Specific consent

Interview Topic: Vacation’s effect on happiness TASK You’ll be conducting an interview READ the two following articles on moodle “How vacations affect your happiness” “Vacationers happier, but most not happier after a holiday” Prepare a specific type of interview Use the BEFORE to prepare for this You will need to record and script your interview Post it on the moodle dropbox when you’re ready

Approaches Inductive Qualitative Deductive Quantitative

Inductive Content Analysis Analyzing collected data to identify themes and categories to then develop new theories. Collecting data (observation, interview…) Preparing the data for content analysis (transcription) Identification of initial themes and categories (coding) Analysis for further themes and categories (higher and lower themes) Checking credibility (other coders, researchers, participant) Structuring the emerging themes and categories (graphing, summary table…) Inferences of links between themes and categories Develop theories from emerging links

Inductive Content Analysis Analyzing collected data to identify themes and categories to then develop new theories.

Inductive Content Analysis

Application – Inductive Content Analysis Read the WHOLE transcription Identify initial themes Identify themes within themes Credibility check Organize your themes (higher and lower) For each, support with a quotation Build a summary table Check for links between themes. Develop a THEORY Final credibility check (participant)

Check Learning Outcomes Nov 2013 Describe how the researchers in this study could use inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) on the interview transcripts.