Basic Learning Processes Robert C. Kennedy, PhD University of Central Florida

11/30/15 Plan Ch 10 Observational Learning Ch 11 Generalization, Discrimination and Stimulus Control (part 1)

Chapter 10: Observational Learning

Observational Learning Vocabulary Asocial observational learning: Learning from the observation of events and their consequences in the absence of a model. Attentional processes: In Bandura’s theory of observational learning, the directing of attention to the relevant aspects of a model’s behavior and its consequences. Bandura`s social cognitive theory: A theory of social OL that relies on cognitive processes. Edutainment: Materials (books, videos, radio programs, etc.) that attempt to educate and entertain the public simultaneously. Edutainment is seen as a way of influencing social behavior. Generalized imitation: The tendency to imitate modeled behavior even though the imitative behavior is not reinforced. Ghost condition: An experimental procedure in which an event normally performed by a model appears to occur without a model. The condition is used in studies of asocial observational learning.

Observational Learning Vocabulary Imitation: Behaving in a manner similar to the behavior of a model. Learning model: In social observational learning, a model who is observed as he or she learns to perform a task. Also called an unskilled model. Motivational processes: In Bandura’s theory of observational learning, the expectation that a modeled behavior will be reinforced. Motor-reproductive processes: In Bandura’s theory of observational learning, using the representations formed during retention to perform a modeled behavior. Observational learning: Learning by observing events and their consequences. The text identifies two kinds of OL, social and asocial. This distinction is not normally made in learning courses, but seems useful given the ghost condition studies.

Observational Learning Vocabulary Operant learning model: The view that observational learning is a variation of operant learning. Over-imitation: The tendency of observers to imitate acts by a model that are irrelevant to obtaining reinforcement. Retentional processes: In Bandura’s theory of observational learning, representing a model`s behavior in a way that aids recall. Social observational learning: Learning from the observation of a model and the consequences of the model`s behavior. Vicarious punishment: A decrease in the strength of an observed behavior following punishment of that behavior in a model. Vicarious reinforcement: An increase in the strength of an observed behavior following reinforcement of that behavior in a model.

Types of Observational Learning Observational learning: learning by observing events and their consequences Example Study

Types of Observational Learning Social observational learning: traditionally considered observational learning Vicariously reinforced: the consequences of the model’s behavior strength the observer’s tendency to behave in a similar way Vicariously punished: the consequences of the model’s behavior weaken the observer’s tendency to behave in a similar way

Types of Observational Learning Asocial observational learning: learning from observed events in the absence of a model People learn from their surroundings in the absence of models There is no vicarious reinforcement or punishment, but the observer’s behavior is influenced by the consequences of an event

Types of Observational Learning Imitation: to perform an observed act, whether modeled or not Most research on imitation involves models, although models are not necessary People tend to imitate observed behavior even when it is irrelevant to reinforcement

Types of Observational Learning Over-imitation: tendency to imitate irrelevant acts – Example: children don’t only copy what is required to produce the behavior, they also perform superfluous irrelevant acts performed by the model Generalized imitation: possible not only to reinforce the imitation of particular acts but also to reinforce a general tendency to imitate – Example: While researchers intend to reinforce only English, children reinforce accurate imitation of both English and Norwegian words, although Norwegian woods were never reinforced

Variables of Observational Learning Difficulty of the task – Less learning is likely to occur if the task is more difficult – Still, observing a model perform a difficult task can improve the likelihood of success – Models are most likely to be helpful when the task is difficult Skilled vs. Unskilled Model – Skilled Model: Observer sees just what is required for positive results – Novice Model: Observer sees both what works and what does not to learn from mistakes and successes

Variables of Observational Learning Characteristics of the model – Human observers learn more from models who are attractive, likeable, prestigious – Models with positive characteristics may attract more attention from observers Characteristics of the observer – Learning history (e.g. student with basic math training will learn more from an algebra lesson) – Age (e.g. young more likely to imitate a model while more mature learn more from observation) – Gender (e.g. young female chimps watch their mothers more carefully when feeding, but young male chimps are distracted) – Sensory handicaps (e.g. poor vision, hearing)

Variables of Observational Learning Consequences of observed acts – Children who see aggressive behavior praised play more aggressively – Those who see aggressive behavior criticized play less aggressively Consequences of the observer’s behavior – If observing behavior leads to learning, we spend more time observing others

Theories of Observational Learning Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: identifies four kinds of cognitive processes that account for learning from models – Attentional: direct attention to the relevant aspects of the model’s behavior and its consequences – Retentional: represent the model’s behavior in some way to aid recall – Motor-reproductive: use the symbolic representations stored during retentional processes to guide action – Motivational processes: evaluate the consequences of imitating modeled behavior

Theories of Observational Learning Operant Learning Model: modeled behavior and consequences serve as cues that similar behavior will be reinforced or punished in the observer We learn to imitate acts that have positive consequences and avoid those that have negative consequences

Applications of Observational Learning Education – Acquiring a first language (e.g. mother reinforces child’s behavior when child uses language correctly) – Classroom learning (e.g. students learn more by paying attention to teacher) – Teaching practical skills (e.g. Kids learn how to bake cake by watching a model do it)

Applications of Observational Learning Social Change: People can learn from each other to impact society “Social transmission”: a monkey named Imo learns to wash sandy potatoes to make them more delicious, and Imo’s practice spreads throughout her community

Chapter 11: Generalization, Discrimination, and Stimulus Control

Chapter 11 Vocabulary Concept: Any class (i.e., group, category) the members of which share one or more defining features. The term may also be defined in terms of the tendency to respond in a particular way toward a particular class of stimuli. CS-: A stimulus that is not followed by a US. CS+: A stimulus that is reliably followed by a US. Differential outcomes effect (DOE): The finding that discrimination training proceeds more rapidly when different behaviors produce different reinforcers. Discrimination: The tendency for a behavior to occur in certain situations but not others. A variation of this is the tendency to respond in the presence of certain stimuli, but not in their absence. Discrimination training: Any procedure for establishing a discrimination. A distinction is made between Pavlovian and operant discrimination training. Discriminative stimulus: In operant discrimination training, any stimulus that signals either that a behavior will be reinforced (an S D ) or that it will not be reinforced (an S ∆ ). Some instructors object to the word signal, so the term may also be defined as a stimulus that reliably precedes reinforcement (an S D ) or non-reinforcement (an S ∆ ). In Pavlovian discrimination training, discriminative stimulus refers to a CS that is associated either with the appearance of a US (the CS+) or with its absence (the CS–).

Chapter 11 Vocabulary Errorless discrimination training: A form of discrimination training in which the S ∆ is introduced in very weak form for short periods and gradually presented at greater strength for longer periods. Excitatory gradient: In Spence’s theory of generalization and discrimination, a generalization gradient showing an increased tendency to respond to the S D or CS+ and stimuli resembling them. Generalization: The tendency for the effects of a learning experience to spread. In the case of stimulus generalization, this means that a behavior tends to occur in situations different from the one in which it was reinforced. Generalization gradient: Any graphic representation of generalization data. Inhibitory gradient: In Spence’s theory of generalization and discrimination, a gradient showing a decreased tendency to respond to the S ∆ or CS– and stimuli resembling them. Matching to sample: A discrimination training procedure in which the task is to select from two or more comparison stimuli the one that matches a sample. Mismatching: A variation of matching to sample in which reinforcement is available for selecting the comparison stimulus that is different from the sample.

Chapter 11 Vocabulary Oddity matching: Another term for mismatching. Peak shift: The tendency following discrimination training for the peak of responding to shift away from the S ∆ or CS–. S+: Symbol for discriminative stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement. S – : Symbol for discriminative stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement. S D : Symbol for discriminative stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement. S ∆. : Symbol for discriminative stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement. Stimulus discrimination training: A discrimination training procedure in which the S D and S ∆ are presented at the same time. Stimulus control: The tendency for a behavior to occur in the presence of an S D but not in the presence of an S ∆. Successive discrimination training: A discrimination training procedure in which the S D and S ∆ are presented one after the other in random sequence.

Generalization LyE

Generalization Generalization: tendency for the effects of a learning experience to spread Four kinds of generalization: – Generalization across people (i.e. vicarious generalization from Ch10) – Generalization across time (i.e. response maintenance from Ch12) – Generalization across behaviors (i.e. response generalization) – Generalization across situations (i.e. stimulus generalization)

Generalization Response generalization: tendency for changes in one behavior to spread to other behaviors – Example: if a rat receives food after pressing a lever with its right front foot, it might also press the lever with its left front foot Stimulus generalization: tendency for changes in behavior in one situation to spread to other situation – Example: Little Albert generalizes his fear of rats to fear of dogs

Generalization Ways of increasing generalization training effects – Provide training in a wide variety of settings – Reinforce generalization when it occurs – Vary the kind, amount, and schedule of reinforcers Generalization implications: – People approaching wild bears as though they were pets – Children punching an inflated doll later are more aggressive when interacting with other children

Next Class Next lecture, 12/7 Ch 11 (part 2) and Ch 12 Quizzes up!!