 Rhetoric is the art of speaking and writing  It’s aim is to:  Persuade  Inform  Express a personal thought  Entertain the reader

 Use them to help strengthen the strategy of your paper  Some are transitional tools  Some are meant to help you present your evidence or information as strongly as possible  Some link the entire essay together, making it cohesive and intentional ▪ This characteristic produces higher scores on standardized tests (AP, SAT, etc.)

 To enhance style  Conveys your personality  Can mean the difference between a “blah” essay and a memorable essay  Produces powerful effects

 allusion  analogy  anaphora  asyndeton  hyperbole  metaphor  parallelism  personification  polysyndeton  repetition  rhetorical question  simile  symbolism

 A brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers.  Example: “This place is like a Garden of Eden.” –This is a biblical allusion to the “garden of God” in the Book of Genesis.  Effect: allows writers to simplify complex ideas and emotions by comparing them to a familiar topic they’ve heard referenced.

 A comparison between two different “things” in order to highlight some point of similarity  What is the difference between analogy and metaphor? ▪ An analogy does not claim total identification, like a metaphor does. Analogy claims a similarity of relationships. (Bradford Stull, The Elements of Figurative Language )  Example: The human eye is similar to a camera. It has a lens and can focus on objects both near and far.  Effect: To simplify a complex argument or concept for an audience

 the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses  Example: "We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender." (Winston Churchill, speech to the House of Commons, June 4, 1940)  Effect: To emphasize an emotion or a point

 A writing style that omits conjunctions (and, or, etc.) between words, phrases, or clauses  Example: "He was a bag of bones, a floppy doll, a broken stick, a maniac." (Jack Kerouac, On the Road, 1957)  Effect: it suggests the series is somehow incomplete; it can also make all elements seem equally important, and it can quicken the pace of prose

 An exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis  Example:  I haven’t seen you in ages!  I was buried in homework!  Effect: can be used for humor or to make a point about an idea

 An implied or hidden comparison between two things or objects that are quite different from each other but have some characteristics common between them  Example:  My room was a disaster area.  My son is a tornado.  Effect: to appeal directly to the senses of listeners or readers, to enhance imagination, to simplify complex ideas, offer new ways of viewing the world

 Parallelism in writing refers to balance and equality of grammatical structures and placement.  Example:  Not parallel: I enjoy long walks on the beach, eating gourmet food, and to stargaze on a clear night.  Parallel: I enjoy taking long walks on the beach, eating gourmet food, and stargazing on a clear night.  Effect: To emphasize points and enhance flow

 Giving human qualities or characteristics to inanimate objects or abstract ideas.  Example:  “Oreo: milk’s favorite cookie”  Effect: To promote understanding

 The use of a number of conjunctions (and, or, etc.) to separate words, phrases, clauses or sentences.  Example:  “We lived and laughed and loved and left.” -James Joyce, Finnegan's Wake  Effect: To establish rhythm and to emphasize the ideas the conjunctions connect.

 Repeating the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer.  Example: I was glad it was raining so hard, because it made it easy to cry. I cried and cried and cried, and the whole time I was calling for Winn-Dixie.  Because of Winn-Dixie by Kate DiCamillo  Effect: stylistically appealing and helps convey the message in much more engaging and notable way.

 A question asked solely to produce effect; does not require a reply  Example:  “Why are people so annoying sometimes?”  “Should you really be eating a bacon double cheeseburger while on your diet?”  Effect: Guides readers to an obvious answer that supports writer’s argument

 Shows similarities between two different things. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of words “like” or “as.”  Example:  “I would have given anything for the power to soothe her frail soul, tormenting itself in its invincible ignorance like a small bird beating about the cruel wires of a cage.” (Joseph Conrad, “Lord Jim”)  Effect: attracts reader’s attention and appeals directly to the senses/imagination of listeners or readers

 the use of symbols to show ideas and qualities by having them represent meanings that are different from their literal sense.  Example: Black is often used to represent something bad, such as death or evil, and white often represents something that is good and pure  Effect: gives a writer freedom to add double levels of meanings to his work: a literal one that is self-evident and the symbolic one whose meaning is far more profound than the literal one.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle discovered that when trying to persuade someone, there are three ways to appeal to them and successfully convince them of your argument: Ethos– Using the writer’s image or character Logos– Using logical arguments Pathos– The emotions of the audience

Audiences believe speakers who they judge to possess:  good moral character  expertise  authority

Aristotle’s Syllogisms  Example:All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal  Effective persuasion depends on convincing people to accept that our assumptions are probably true and make sense.

Emotions greatly influence our rational judgments  Powerful emotions like anger, fear, and pity are especially effective

Logical fallacies are errors in the structure of an argument.  “Fallacy” means falsehood. These arguments can be used to distract people from the actual issue or to persuade Although these arguments may sound persuasive and may seem correct, some part of the argument is flawed.

Loaded Language (Stacking the deck): ignores or significantly downplays facts or evidence contrary to one’s position and highlights points that support it. Either/or fallacy: the argument that there are only two possible answers to a complicated question, one usually terrible. Sweeping Generalization: An absolute statement usually involving “all,” “always,” or “never” statements, in which one exception will disprove the claim