Case Study: Vietnam How was a small country like Vietnam able to win a war against the USA? Essay Question

This section includes: Background 1957 to 1965 – Struggle in Vietnam between the South Vietnamese army and the communist-trained rebels (Viet Cong) 1965 to 1969 – North Vietnamese-USA struggle The war from the Vietnamese and USA perspective The war as a world issue 1969 to 1975 – USA withdrawal from Vietnam Conclusion: How the war is remembered today (Refer to CAPS, p26) 2

Where in the World is Vietnam? Vietnam USA

Background In the 19 th century France colonised a large part of SE Asia including modern day Vietnam. (French Indo-China) 1941: Japan invaded and occupied SE Asia. 1941: Two communists / Vietnamese nationalists (Ho Chi Minh and Nguyen Vo Giap) set up Viet Minh (League for the Independence of Vietnam) Viet Minh funded by the US.

Post-War Settlement : Japan was defeated in WWII, withdrew from SE Asia September 1945 Ho Chi Minh announced Vietnam was an independent and democratic republic.(TXT)(TXT) The French attempted to re- establish their empire and took back control of the south Vietminh continued to fight for full independence and a united Vietnam 1954 Viet Minh siege of Dien Bien Phu French surrendered In May 1954, Britain, France, China, the Soviet Union, the USA and Vietnam met in Geneva to decide the future of Vietnam The Geneva Agreement (TXT)(TXT) Ho Chi Minh Trail

: USA give backing to South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem 1955 Diem (supported by USA) was officially elected president of South Vietnam in rigged elections Diem was a dictator. He was a Catholic and persecuted the Buddhist majority. Land was taken from peasants and given to Diem’s supporters 1956: Diem refused to allow elections to re-unite North and South Vietnam.

1957 to 1965 Struggle in Vietnam between the South Vietnamese army (ARVN) and the communist- trained rebels (also known as the Viet Cong) (CAPS p26) (During this phase the USA sent money, military equipment and ‘advisors’ to support to the South Vietnam government but had not yet committed US combat troops to fight in Vietnam.)

Growing opposition to Diem’s government from within South Vietnam 1959: Vietminh (North Vietnam Communists) supporters in South Vietnam formed the National Liberation Front (or Viet Cong) – used guerrilla tactics(txt) against ARVN.(txt) 1960: Diem (with CIA support) forcibly relocated whole villages thought to be supportive of Viet Cong into ‘Strategic Hamlets’ (enclosed by ditches, barbed wires and under 24hr guard) USA supported South Vietnamese government Army (ARVN) by dollar aid and air support + backed up with counter-insurgency forces (USA’s Green Beret’s) + USA sent more ‘advisors’ (another 15,000) in operation ‘beef-up’ (!)

Growing opposition to Diem’s government from within South Vietnam 1963: an elderly monk named Thich Quang Duc, set himself ablaze in protest against Diem’s corrupt regime. 1963: a CIA funded a military coup in South Vietnam which overthrew and killed Diem. 22 Nov 1963: President JF Kennedy was assassinated. LB Johnson became President of USA US photojournalist Malcolm Brown who took this ‘iconic’ photograph.

Why did America become involved in a war in Vietnam? American Presidents during the period of US involvement in Vietnam: Dwight D Eisenhower (Rep): John F. Kennedy (Dem): Lyndon B Johnson (Dem): Richard Nixon (Rep):

The ‘Domino Effect’ (Strategic importance of Vietnam in the context of the Cold War) In 1949 the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong won their civil war and established a communist government. USA feared that other countries in the region would fall to communism unless the USA actively prevented it.

Gulf of Tonkin Incident (Trigger) President Johnson was ambivalent about escalation of US involvement in Vietnam. Robert Macnamara (sec of Defence) and McGeorge Bundy (national security advisor) were urging full-scale military intervention to prevent the fall of South Vietnam. In August 1964 US patrols (gathering intelligence information) in the Gulf of Tonkin (off the North Vietnamese coast) claimed to have been fired upon by. US President Johnson used these attacks to persuade Congress to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which gave the president the power to ‘take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the US and to prevent further aggression.’ By end of ,000 US combat soldiers had been sent to Vietnam. By 1968 there were 500,000 US combat soldiers in Vietnam

Activity: Document-Based Lessons Introduction to ‘Reading like a Historian’, Stanford History Educator’s Group, Stanford University, USA. (You Tube) Gulf of Tonkin Document-Based Lesson(DBL)(DBL) What were President Johnson’s choices and what position did he take in public and private? (DBL)(DBL)

: North Vietnamese- USA struggle During this phase of the war (under President Lyndon B Johnson’s leadership) the USA sent combat troops (many of whom were teenager conscript soldiers) soldiers to fight in the Vietnam War. By 1968 c.500,000 US soldiers were stationed in Vietnam.

: North Vietnamese-USA struggle (The Players) USA’s objective: Containment. To stop the North Vietnamese communists taking over in South Vietnam and prevent Vietnam being united as a communist country. South Vietnam government’s objective: To keep control over South Vietnam and to maintain the support of the US. North Vietnam’s objective: National Liberation To unify North and South Vietnam under a communist government. Viet Cong’s objective To build up support in South Vietnam to help achieve North Vietnam’s objective

: North Vietnamese-USA struggle (The Strategies) US Strategies: Force North Vietnam to give up war Make North Vietnam agree to a settlement acceptable to US Protect South Vietnam and win support of South Vietnamese South Vietnam government’s strategies Remove Viet Cong from villages Defend South Vietnam from invasion Rely on US money and support to achieve objectives North Vietnam and Viet Cong Strategies: Convince the people of South Vietnam to get rid of their government Destroy the morale of the ARVN (South Vietnam army) Inflict enough damage on US troops to convince it to withdraw Fight until full national liberation and unification of Vietnam was achieved

: North Vietnamese-USA struggle (The Tactics) USA/ ARVN 7 Feb 1965: USA launched ‘Operation Rolling Thunder’: - Widespread aerial bombing using cluster bombs and Chemical weapons (‘Agent Orange’ and Napalm used) Search and Destroy missions on enemy units (used airmobility to move troops) Bomb and cut off supply routes from North Vietnam to Viet Cong Win hearts and minds (build trust) with South Vietnamese North Vietnam/ Viet Cong Build support base among local population in South Vietnam. Avoid open battles with enemy – use of guerrilla tactics Booby traps, ambushes and mines Attack at night Use local population to gather information about troop movements NB: 31 January 1968 Viet Cong launched an attack on over 100 towns and cities in the south during New Year (or Tet) holiday

The Tet Offensive – 31 January 1968 (A turning point in the war) Viet Cong launched an attack on over 100 cities in South Vietnam (BBC)(BBC) Some historians now argue that this offensive was a disaster for the Viet Cong and that after Tet it was largely the North Vietnamese Army which led the struggle in the south. USA also claimed a US victory. BUT… US public were horrified that Viet Cong could launch such an attack which included seizing the US embassy in Saigon. ‘What the hell’s going on here? I thought we were winning this war?’ (TV journalist Walter Conkite)

: North Vietnamese-USA struggle By 1968 it was clear that the USA was not winning the war. (Stalemate?) March 1968: President Johnson rejected the US army’s request for more troops to be sent to Vietnam + announced he would not stand for re-election. January 20, Richard M. Nixon was inaugurated as the 37th U.S. President. He pledged "peace with honor.”

1969 to 1975 – USA withdrawal from Vietnam 1969: ‘Nixon Doctrine’ stated that US would help those who helped themselves – ‘Vietnamisation’ phase of war began. 1970: Congress revoked the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Nixon’s bombing raids into Cambodia led to intensification of anti-war protest within USA. Reduced US combat from 543,000 in 1968 to 24,200 by January 1973 ceasefire agreed. Required unilateral withdrawal of all US troops from Vietnam.

The Civil war continued until March 1975 when North Vietnam took control of Saigon, renamed it Ho Chi Minh City and Vietnam was re-united.

“From , the wealthiest and most powerful nation in the history of the world made a maximum military effort, with everything short of atomic bombs, to defeat a nationalist revolutionary movement in a tiny peasant country – and failed”. (H. Zinn, A People’s History of the USA, (New York, 1980, p460) WHY?

Activity: Essay Plan Work in groups of 3 at your tables. 1.Use the images and text from the powerpoint presentation and the ideas conveyed in the You Tube footage to identify the main reasons why a small country like Vietnam was able to defeat the powerful USA. Write these key ideas in the first set of boxes on your Essay Planning Tool. 2.For each ‘General Idea’ identify a few ‘Specific Examples’ which could be used to substantiate the point you have made. Write these in the appropriate boxes.

Extract from the Vietnamese Declaration of Independence – 1945 … for more than eighty years, the French imperialists, abusing the standard of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, have violated our fatherland and oppressed our fellow- citizens. They have acted contrary to the ideals of humanity and justice…we, members of the Provisional Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, solemnly declare to the world that Vietnam has the right to be free and independence country…The entire Vietnamese people are determined to mobilise all their physical and mental strength to sacrifice their lives and property to safeguard their independence and liberty.

Deforestation caused by USA spraying Agent Orange (TCDD Dioxin) The Vietnamese Red Cross estimates that up to three million Vietnamese have suffered health effects from dioxin exposure, of whom 150,000 are children with birth defects

Ten year old Phan Thi Kim Phuc running naked down a street having torn off her burning clothes after an American Napalm attack. The US dropped over 400,000 tons of napalm on Vietnam during the war. (Napalm is a form of petroleum jelly which sticks to anything and burns through houses, forests, human skin…

Women and children shot dead by American soldiers lie in the road at the village of My Lai, We huddled the villagers up. We made them squat down. I poured about four clips into the group. The mothers were hugging their children. While we kept on firing. ( An extract from the evidence of Paul Meadlo who was a US soldier at My Lai.) The Massacre at My Lai - 16 March Two US platoons responsible for the rape and massacre of c.347 unarmed civilians.

Conscripted Soldiers: ‘Cherries’ Of the 3 million Americans involved in Vietnam war – about two-thirds were conscripts (‘cherries’) Average age of conscript = 19 years 12 month – ‘tour of duty’ Anti-conscription campaign in USA A student (illegally) burns his draft card during an anti-war demonstration. Over 200,000 young men dodged the draft.

A Soviet cartoon mocking the large number of US casualties in Vietnam. c. 1968

Kent State Massacre (4 May 1970) National Guardsmen opened fire on student protestors in Ohio, killing four. This picture shows one of the dead students, Jeffrey Miller.

Casualties of War CategoryYear RangeLow estimates Medium estimates High estimates North Vietnamese civilian deaths from bombing ,000 North Vietnamese soldiers killed ,000 Viet Cong deaths ,000251,000329,000 Viet Cong and North Vietnamese soldiers deaths combined ,0001,011,0001,489,000 South Vietnamese civilian deaths from gunfire / bombing ,000391,000720,000 South Vietnamese soldiers killed ,000266,000313,000 US military deaths ,00047,00058,000 Source: Rudolph Rummel, Statistics of Vietnamese Democide: Estimates, Calculations and Sources, 1997.

Why did the USA lose the Vietnam War? Tactics: US Army’s conventional military tactics were largely ineffective in the jungle terrain and faced with the guerrilla warfare tactics. Bombing was costly and use of chemical weapons increasingly unpopular with anti- war lobby within USA Anti-War movement within USA – an increasingly vocal and visible minority which included veterans and ‘ordinary Americans’ as well as youths and students. Media coverage of the war – 1 st TV war (this feeds into anti-war sentiment within USA but also puts international pressure on USA) North Vietnam and NLA were fighting a war of liberation to free their country from foreign intervention. The USA troops did not have the same commitment to a cause. Support for North Vietnamese from China and USSR

The war from the ‘USA’ and ‘Vietnamese’ perspective (NB: In both countries there are very different opinions – be wary of generalisations) Vietnam The American War. An anti-colonial war of liberation. A nationalist war A civil war Long term impact of war has lived on in the dead and displaced, the widows, orphans, the maimed and mutilated, the environmental destruction, the birth defects. United States of America The Vietnam War A war to contain communism A Cold War conflict Long term impact includes mixed emotions about the losses, injuries and trauma suffered, the human rights violations committed in the name of democracy, the humiliation of defeat and the futility of a war

How the war is remembered today in the USA and Vietnam? Memorials in USA and Vietnam Film (Hollywood has presented different views of war in different periods) Music Personal accounts / Auto-biographies Academic histories Tourist sites

Vietnam War memorial complex in Washington DC consists of three memorials November The Three Servicemen statue (by Frederick hart) was dedicated due to controversy over Lin’s memorial wall. Designed by 21 yr old Maya Lin, the original memorial consists of two sloping walls of reflective black granite engraved with names of 58,183 who died in Vietnam war. Positioned among the trees she intended it as a memorial to men and women who died in the war, as a whole. November, 1993 – Vietnam Women’s memorial was dedicated.

American War memorial in Hanoi. Constructed in 1993

Mao’s Tse-tung’s summary of guerrilla warfare The enemy attacks, we retreat The enemy camps, we raid The enemy tires, we attack The enemy retreats, we pursue

Military principles of the Red Army (Chinese People’s Liberation Army) Attack scattered, isolated enemy forces first; attack concentrated, strong enemy forces later Take country areas first The main aim is to wipe out the enemy’s army. It is not to capture or hold their positions Fight no battle you are not sure of winning Keep moving Build up your strength with captured weapons. Win enemy soldiers over toy your side.