Sports in Society: Issues and Controversies Chapter 6 Deviance in Sports: Is It Out of Control?

Media stories about drug use, on-the-field rule violations, and off-the-field criminal actions are so common today that deviance is seen by many as out of control in sports. Source: C.J.Burton/Corbis)

Defining and studying deviance in sports Deviance occurs when a person’s ideas, traits, or actions are perceived by others to fall outside the normal range of acceptance in a society Formal deviance = violations of official rules and laws that are punished by official sanctions administered by people in positions of authority Informal deviance = violations of unwritten customs and shared understandings that are punished by unofficial sanctions administered by observers or peers

Defining and studying deviance in sports Understanding deviance requires an understanding of norms Norm = a shared expectation that people use to identify what is acceptable and unacceptable in a social world Formal norms = official expectations that take the form of written rules or laws Informal norms = customs or unwritten, shared understandings of how a person is expected to think, appear, & act in a social world

Problems faced when studying deviance in sports Types and causes of deviance are diverse; one theory cannot explain them. Actions accepted in sports may be deviant in other situations; and actions accepted in society may be deviant in sports. Deviance in sports often involves uncritical acceptance of norms, rather than a rejection of norms. Training and performance are now based on such new forms of science and technology that people haven’t had time to develop new norms to guide and regulate the actions of people in sports.

Assault & battery or sport? Who decides? Source: © Jeff Chiu/ /AP/Corbis

Two approaches to studying deviance Absolutist approach = assumes that social norms are based on essential principles that constitute an unchanging foundation for identifying good & evil and distinguishing right from wrong. This approach is based on four assumptions: Norms represent social or moral ideals Any departure from the ideal constitutes deviance The greater the departure from the ideal, the more serious the deviance.

According to an absolutist approach, “normal” is conforming to an ideal, and anything less than normal is deviant.

An absolutist approach to deviance does little to explain or control most deviance in sports today.

Two approaches to studying deviance Constructionist approach = deviance occurs when ideas, traits, and actions fall outside socially determined boundaries that people use to determine what is acceptable and unacceptable in a social world. This approach is based on four assumptions: Norms are socially constructed as people interact with each other and determine what’s acceptable and what isn’t Deviance is socially constructed as people negotiate the boundaries of their acceptance. Power dynamics influence this negotiation Most ideas, traits, and actions fall into a normally accepted range

According to a constructionist approach, there are two types of deviance—one involving underconformity to norms and the other involving overconformity.

Using a constructionist approach to explain deviance in sports Most deviance in sports is not due to the moral bankruptcy of athletes, as inferred by an absolutist approach. Much deviance in sports involves overconformity to established norms in sports. Sport deviance must be understood in terms of the context of sport cultures and the norms of “the sport ethic.”

The sport ethic . . . an interrelated set of norms or standards that are used to guide and evaluate ideas, traits, and actions in the social worlds created around power and performance sports.

Deviance in sports occurs on both sides of normal

Why do athletes engage in deviant overconformity? Playing sports is so exciting and exhilarating that athletes will do almost anything to stay involved. Being selected to play high-performance sports often requires overconformity to the norms of the sport ethic. Exceeding normative limits creates drama and excitement and leads to strong social bonds between athletes.

Athletes most likely to overconform to the sport ethic Those with low self-esteem and a deep need to be accepted as athletes by their peers in a sport Those who see achievement in sports as their only way to gain success and respect Those males who link their identities as athletes and as men so that being an athlete and being a man become one and the same thing

Deviant overconformity and group dynamics Engaging in deviant overconformity Bonds athletes together in ways that normalize overconformity to the sport ethic in sport groups Separates athletes from the general community while inspiring awe and admiration among community members Often leads athletes to develop HUBRIS – that is, pride-driven arrogance and an inflated sense of self-importance that leads one to feel separate from and superior to others

Is there a relationship between deviant overconformity in sport cultures and deviant underconformity in the larger social world? If so, some athletes may feel that certain norms to not apply to them, and that certain people don’t deserve their respect.

Additional hypotheses about deviance among athletes Deviance becomes more likely when Social bonds among athletes normalize risk taking Athletes are separated from the rest of the community Athletes develop extreme degrees of hubris People in the community see athletes as deserving special privilege because they engage in entertaining, even if dangerous and disabling, actions

How to control deviant overconformity in sports Learn to identify the forms and dynamics of over-conformity among athletes (and make coaches aware) Raise critical questions about the meaning, organization, and purpose of sports Help athletes to learn how and when to set limits on their conformity to the norms of the sport ethic Assist athletes to connect more meaningfully and deeply with people in the general community

Research on deviance among athletes On-the-Field Deviance Evidence suggests that cheating, dirty play, and fighting are less common today than in the past. It seems like there is more today because there are more rules to violate and video technology captures it. Athletes in power and performance sports accept “good fouls,” “cheating when you can get away with it,” and “playing to the level of the referee.” People focus exclusively on deviant underconformity and overlook deviant overconformity—the form of deviance that might be more pervasive today. This historical finding contradicts popular perceptions. Many people think that athletes are more deviant today because there are more rules than ever before, and expectations for conformity are greater.

Deviance by people other than athletes Athletes are not the only ones in sports who engage in deviant behavior. Think of other examples involving: Coaches Administrators Team owners Referees Trainers Public officials Media people Agents Parents Spectators

Corruption in Sport Organizations As the personal stakes (i.e., status and money) have increased in sports and surveillance methods are more pervasive, our awareness of corruption in sport organizations has increased. Self-policing in sport organizations is inherently flawed When people believe in the great sport myth, they overlook deviance because they don’t want to see it There are many conflicts of interest that undermine self-policing People managing sport organizations are not trained rule enforcers The “good ol’ boy” networks in these organization undermine transparency and accountability

Institutional corruption = established, widespread & taken-for-granted processes and practices that, if publicly known, would be seen as immoral, unethical, or illegal to the point of destroying public trust in its leaders Many top executives in FIFA have been investigated for corrupt business practices. Chuck Blazer, a former executive for the American Soccer League and the U.S. Soccer Federation was suspended from his post in FIFA for paying himself $1.5 million in commissions, among other things—plus he amasses a fortune without ever paying taxes. Source: © ALI HAIDER/epa/Corbis)

Gambling & Associated Deviance New digital technologies have enabled more people to gamble on more sports in more regions of the world than ever before. Heavy betting occurs in soccer with its more than 10,000 professional teams worldwide High stakes gamblers have tried to increase their odds of wining by making deals with athletes and referees. Most of these deals are very difficult to detect, except viewing betting patters worldwide to detect patterns that may indicate when a “fix is in” Organized crime is now involved in global sport gambling, and this increases danger for rule enforcers

Hazing: Deviance or Team Building? Hazing is a chronic issue at many levels of sports People often confuse hazing, bullying, and rites of passage. It is difficult to obtain data on hazing Hazing becomes an insider secret among members of high status groups Hazing increasingly involves demeaning sex acts which people don’t want to admit to or discuss Hazing on some teams becomes increasingly extreme over time and has led to serious injuries and deaths.

Like hazing on all teams, it is used by team veterans as a means of asserting power and control over new team members. Hazing on professional teams often involves forcing rookies to engage juvenile actions that place them in a subordinate position. . Source: AP Photo/LM Otero)

Research on deviance among athletes (I) Off-the-Field Deviance Research shows that many athletes have lower rates of delinquency than similar peers who do not play sports There are exceptions to this in the case of certain athletes (football players and wrestlers in one study) who are more likely to engage in serious fights than other athletes Sport programs do nothing to alter the social conditions associated with delinquency (continued)

Research on deviance among athletes (II) Data on academic cheating is inconclusive. Membership in any tight-knit group is more important than simply playing sports when explaining cheating patterns Data on rates of alcohol use & binge drinking are mixed Drinking norms vary by the age of athletes & the contexts in which they live (e.g., dorm vs. parents’ home) Binge drinking also is a problem in society as a whole Felony rates among adult athletes do not seem to be out of control, but they are a serious problem. Age, race, ethnicity, & social class background must be taken into account when analyzing data Sexual assault rates seem to be high and constitute a serious problem

Using deviance to create commercial personas in sports Consumptive deviance = actions and appearances that can be imagined as “real” deviance without producing any real negative consequences for anyone involved. This form of deviance may be used to create marketable personas or to make one’s self into a brand—without hurting anyone in the process

Performance-Enhancing Substances (PESs): A Case Study of Deviant Overconformity Use of PESs has a long history in sports and it has been difficult to detect and control in every era Coakley conclusion: substance use is not caused by defective socialization or a lack of moral character among athletes It usually occurs among the most dedicated, committed, & hard-working athletes in sports. Most substance use and abuse is tied to an athlete’s uncritical acceptance of the norms of the sport ethic. Therefore, it is grounded in overconformity to the norms of the sport ethic

Using performance enhancing substances in sports The use of performance-enhancing substances occurs regularly today in high-performance sports. In most cases, substances, illegal or legal, are used as training aids more than performance enhancers during competition—they enable athletes to train more intensely and for longer periods than “normal” PESs will be used as long as athletes believe they are effective and allow athletes to remain in the game they love and depend on for their identities and livelihoods

Lance Armstrong completes a half triathlon with his daughters running with him to the finish line. After his pro cycling career, he continued to train incessantly for marathons & triathlons, even though he had little chance of winning at his age. But his identity depended on it. Source: © Elizabeth Kreutz/Corbis)

Sport Careers & the Use of Performance-Enhancing Technologies PES use is best explained in terms of career socialization and survival Sport Careers & the Use of Performance-Enhancing Technologies

Dietary Supplements are not subject to government testing & approval before they are marketed and sold When two people died using OxyELITE Pro, it was taken off the market

Nearly all elite athletes today take one kind of PESs or another Nearly all elite athletes today take one kind of PESs or another. These have been big sellers in Colorado Springs, home of the U.S. Olympic Training Center and other athletes training at altitude

Defining and banning performance-enhancing substances Defining a “performance-enhancing substance” Defining what is unnatural, artificial, abnormal, or foreign to the body is difficult. Defining what is fair is difficult when athletes now use science, medicine, & technology in their training and competition. Determining what is dangerous to health is difficult—and irrelevant to athletes who put their bodies on the line just to participate in their sport Studying and testing for substances is limited by ethical and legal factors

The negative side effects of various combinations of substances are more difficult to identify than this!

Why has substance use become normalized in elite sports today? (I) The visibility and resources associated with sports have fueled massive research and development efforts, and increased the availability of substances. People are fascinated with technology and want to use it to push human limits. The rationalization of the body influences how people see the mind-body relationship. There’s a growing emphasis on self-medication. (continued)

Why has substance use become normalized in elite sports today? (II) Gender relations are changing, & substances are used to challenge or preserve gender ideology. The organization of power & performance sports encourages overconformity to norms of the sport ethic. Coaches, sponsors, administrators, and fans encourage deviant overconformity. Athletes’ performances are closely monitored with an emphasis on control over body and conformity to demands of coaches.

Arguments for testing used by WADA and USADA Testing is needed to: Protect the health of athletes and reduce pressures to take substances to keep up with competitors Guarantee fairness and a level playing field Protect children who may imitate athletes Maintain normal law enforcement procedures Preserve the inherent integrity of sports and the true meaning of athletic achievement Preserve faith in the great sport myth (although they don’t say it this way)

Some athletes take multiple “nutritional supplements.” The industries that produce them are unregulated and they often market products as performance enhancing.

Arguments against testing Testing should be dropped because: Athletes remain one-step ahead of the testers, making tests ineffective Testing violates privacy rights Testing drains valuable sport resources Testing can’t detect all performance enhancing substances Testing encourages athletes to seek other technologies such as genetic engineering

The “War on Doping” This rationale for the “war” is based on an absolutist approach assuming that any use of PESs violates the ideals of sport and is therefore deviant. This approach Demonizing all athletes who use banned substances for any reason Is now the basis for a multi-billion dollar industry worldwide Creates a cat and mouse system of policing that is ineffective, but gives the public the illusion that athletes are “clean” and fit to be role models for children who don’t know them beyond their sport performances and what they tweet about them. Pushes sport medicine and other researchers to develop new approaches to performance enhancement that may further endanger athletes. Protects sponsors and media company profits as it sacrifices athletes

Controlling substance use: where to start (I) Critically examine the hypocrisy in elite sports Establish rules indicating that risks to health are undesirable and unnecessary in sports Establish a “harm reduction” approach, disallowing athletes to play until they are certified as “well” by an independent medical expert Establish injury and health education programs for athletes (continued)

Controlling substance use: where to start (II) Establish a code of ethics for sport scientists, coaches, managers, and those who arrange competition schedules (that are inhumane and destroy athletes’ bodies) Make drug education part of deviance and health education to Critically examine values and norms in sports Redefine meaning of achievement Teach athletes to think critically Provide accurate and current information to parents, coaches, and athletes