Chapter 13: Tropical Africa and Asia

The Tropical Environment Falls between the Tropic of Cancer in north & Tropic of Capricorn in the south Cycle of rainy & dry seasons dictated by the monsoons Coastal W. Africa, west-central Africa & southern India get abundant rain Arid zone-Sahara & northwest India, southwestern Africa Altitude affects climate

Human Ecosystems Different societies adopted different means of surviving to fit into the different ecological zones found in the tropics In some places such as Central Africa, the upper altitudes of the Himalayas & some seacoasts, wild food & fish was so abundant that human societies could thrive without developing agriculture or herding

Tropical Lands & Peoples: Human Ecosystems Human communities in arid areas of tropics relied on herding & supplemented their diets w/ grain & vegetables obtained through trade w/ settled agriculturalists Most people were farmers who cultivated crops rice, wheat sorghum, millet, etc. depending on the conditions of soil, climate & water

Water Systems & Irrigation South & SE Asia had ample water supplies; intensive agriculture transformed the environment & supported dense populations In most parts of sub-Saharan Africa & parts of SE Asia, farmers abandoned their fields every few years & cleared new areas by cutting & burning vegetation (“slash & burn”)

Water Systems & Irrigation Tropics have uneven distribution of rain so dams, irrigation canals, & reservoirs were necessary Huge projects increased production but were vulnerable to natural disasters & political disruptions Smaller irrigation systems were easier to construct & maintain so they provided consistent long-term stability

Mineral Resources Tropical peoples used iron for agricultural implements, weapons, needles Copper, particularly important in Africa, was used to make wire & decorative objects Africa also known for its production of gold Metalworking & food-producing systems mobilized the labor of ordinary people to produce surpluses that in places supported powerful states & profitable commercial systems Neither of those elite enterprises would have been possible without the work of ordinary people

New Islamic Empires: Mali Islam spread to sub- Saharan Africa by gradual peaceful conversion facilitated by commercial contacts In 1240, Sundiata (Muslim leader of Malinke people) established kingdom of Mali Mali’s economy rested on agriculture & was supplemented by control of regional & trans- Saharan trading routes & by control of gold mines of Niger headwaters

New Islamic Empires: Mali Mansa Musa (1312– 1337) demonstrated fabulous wealth on hajii to Mecca People came to Mali mosques & Quranic schools built declined/collapsed in mid-late 15 th c.-internal rebellions & external attacks Intellectual life & trade moved to other African states, including Hausa states & Kanem-Bornu

Delhi Sultanate in India Between , divided states of NW India defeated by Muslim Turkish conquerors under Sultan Iltutmish Muslim elite ruled India relatively peacefully but Hindus never forgave violence of conquest Iltutmish passed throne on to his daughter, Raziya but driven out by men unwilling to accept female ruler Ala-ud-din & Muhammad ibn Tughluq carried out aggressive territorial expansion accompanied (in the case of Tughluq) by policy of religious toleration toward Hindus but policy reversed by Tughluq’s successor In general, Delhi sultans ruled by terror; burdened their subjects In mid-14 th c, internal rivalries & external threats undermined stability of sultanate-destroyed when Timur sacked Delhi in 1398

Indian Ocean Trade: Monsoon Mariners Indian Ocean trade increased between , stimulated by prosperity of Europe, Asia, & African & SE Asian states Red & Arabian Seas, trade was carried on dhows From India on to SE Asia, junks dominated trade routes. Junks were technologically advanced, had watertight compartments & up to twelve sails, carried cargoes of up to 1,000 tons Junks developed in China, but during 15 th c, junks also built in Bengal & SE Asia & sailed w/ crews from those places Indian Ocean trade was decentralized & cooperative; various regions supplied particular goods Certain ports-entrepots-functioned as major emporiums for trade in which goods from smaller ports were stored, consolidated & shipped onward

Africa: The Swahili Coast & Zimbabwe By 1500, there were thirty or forty separate city-states along East African coast participating in Indian Ocean trade. People of these coastal cities-Swahili people-spoke African language enriched w/ Arabic & Persian Swahili cities-Kilwa-famous exported gold mined in or around inland kingdom-capital was Great Zimbabwe Great Zimbabwe’s economy rested on agriculture, cattle herding, & trade. City declined due to ecological crisis from deforestation & overgrazing

Arabia: Aden & Red Sea Aden had enough rainfall to produce wheat for export & was a central transit point for trade from Persian Gulf, East Africa, & Egypt Aden’s merchants prospered on this trade & built a wealthy & impressive city In general, a common interest in trade allowed various peoples & religions of Indian Ocean Basin to live in peace Violence did sometimes break out, as when Christian Ethiopia fought w/ Muslims of Red Sea coast over control of trade

India: Gujarat & Malabar Coast Gujarat prospered from Indian Ocean trade; exported cotton textiles, indigo in return for gold & silver Gujarat not only commercial center-also manufacturing center that produced textiles, leather goods, carpets, silk, & other commodities Gujarat’s overseas trade dominated by Muslims, but Hindus benefited Calicut & other cities of Malabar Coast exported cotton textiles & spices & served as clearing-house for long- distance trade Cities of Malabar Coast unified in loose confederation-rulers tolerant of other religious & ethnic groups

Southeast Asia: The Rise of Malacca Strait of Malacca is principal passage from Indian Ocean to South China Sea. In 14 th c. Chinese pirates preyed upon ships In 1407, forces of Ming dynasty crushed pirates Muslim ruler of Malacca used this to exert control over strait & make Malacca into major port & center of trade

Social & Cultural Change: Architecture, Learning, & Religion Commercial contacts & spread of Islam led to variety of social & cultural changes African & Indian mosques are good examples of synthesis of Middle Eastern & local architectural styles Spread of Islam brought literacy to African peoples who first learned Arabic & then used Arabic script to write their own languages In India, literacy already established, but spread of Islam brought development of new Persian-influenced language (Urdu) & papermaking technology

Social & Cultural Change: Architecture, Learning, & Religion As it spread to Africa, India, & SE Asia, Islam brought Islamic law & administration & Greek science, mathematics, & medicine Timbuktu, Delhi, & Malacca were 2 new centers of Islamic learning Islam spread peacefully; forced conversions rare. Muslim domination of trade contributed to spread of Islam as merchants attracted by common moral code & laws converted & as Muslim merchants in foreign lands established households & converted local wives & servants. Islamic destruction of last center of Buddhism in India contributed to spread of Islam in India Islam brought social & cultural changes to communities that converted, but Islam itself was changed, developing differently in African, Indian, & Indonesian societies

Social & Gender Distinctions Gap between elites & common people widened in tropical societies as wealthy urban elites prospered from increased Indian Ocean trade Slavery increased in Africa & India 2.5 million African slaves exported across Sahara & Red Sea between more shipped from cities of Swahili coast Most slaves trained in specific skills; hereditary military slaves could become rich & powerful Other slaves worked at hard menial jobs like copper mining, Female slaves mostly household servants & entertainers. Large number of slaves meant price of slaves was low

Social & Gender Distinctions Not much information on possible changes in status of women in tropics some scholars speculate that restrictions on women eased somewhat in Hindu societies Early arranged marriage was typical for Indian women, expected to obey strict rules of fidelity & chastity Women’s status was generally determined by status of male masters. Women practiced certain skills other than child rearing; cooking, spinning, pottery making, & clothing production Difficult to tell what effect spread of Islam had on women; encouraged to read the Quran, but local customs dictated the behavior & degree of public participation In some places, such as Mali, Muslims did not adopt Arab practice of veiling & secluding women

Conclusion: Political Mali empire of western Sudan arose among African natives who had earlier converted to Islam voluntarily Dehli Sultanate of India, though providing political unity to northern India, arose through invasion, conquest, and violence, and was intolerant of native religions.

Conclusion: Economic & Cultural Comparisons Ships in Arabian Sea to west of India were the dhows, carrying up to 400 tons Ships to east, traveling to Southeast Asia, were larger junks, carrying over 1,000 tons Life in urban trading centers included more cultural diversity than was experienced close to centers of imperial power To one contemporary observer, citizens of Mali experienced greater social justice than Indians living under the rule of Muhammad ibn Tughluq of the Dehli Sultanate.