When You come in… When an engineer has the job to design a bridge, what factors must he/she take into account? Biotechnology works the same way and the same steps are used

What are mutations? What are Genetic disorders? Trivia tidbit: A tobacco plant has the ability to glow! How so? Can humans glow? What are transgenic organisms?

Human Genetics-biotechnology

Vocabulary Recombinant DNA  DNA that has been genetically modified by connecting DNA fragments from multiple sources Host  organism you are obtaining the gene from Vector  organism such as a bacteria, you are going to use to put the recombinant DNA into the organism you are trying to change Plasmid  DNA or “chromosome” of a bacteria Restriction Enzyme  bacterial proteins that have the ability to cut both strands of DNA at specific points called restriction sites

Biotechnology Biotechnology  the use of technology to manipulate or change life in some manner – The only way to do this is through changing genes somehow Can occur in many different ways. – Gene manipulation – DNA recombination – Cloning – Stem Cells

Gene manipulation Why would you want to manipulate genes? Genetic engineering Applications – Medical – food Manipulated cell Interactions

Process of manipulating genes 1.Choose an organism to change, and one to obtain the gene from (host) 2.Choose a bacterial vector that will transform the gene  incorporate gene into its own DNA 3.Gene Splicing  Cleave (cut) the pieces of DNA of interest from the host organism  restriction enzyme- “cleaves” 4.Isolate the gene located in the pieces of DNA in the host 5.Insert the gene into bacterial vector DNA (recombinant DNA) 6.Expose the vector to the organism you are trying to change 7.Organism must “take up” recombinant DNA

Using Restriction enzymes to make recombinant DNA Restriction enzymes are chemical catalysts that “cut” DNA molecules at specific locations in order to obtain certain genes – Can be used for genetic manipulation or DNA cloning Each Restriction enzyme is specific to a specific restriction site They are cut into a specific pattern allowing there to be sticky ends – These sticky ends can form hydrogen bonds with other sticky ends creating a whole piece of DNA with the potenetial for them being from different sources

Cloning a Eukaryotic gene in a bacterial plasmid Works the same was as making recombinant DNA with one exception: You obtain a piece of DNA from a bacteria, this is called the cloning vector – Use a restriction enzyme to produce sticky ends You obtain genes from a human cell You then expose the human pieces of DNA into the bacterial cell Use the enzyme DNA ligase to “glue” the pieces back together Then you place the bacterial DNA back into the bacteria

What does it mean to sequence DNA? What are genetically modified foods? What was the human genome project? What are stem cells?

Sequencing DNA Once you have the fragment spliced out, you sequence the DNA  Method of trying to identify the bases in a particular organism This is done by gel electrophoresis-next slide This is how fraternity tests, crime analysis, and criminal investigations are done. Sequence the DNA of the “evidence” found, then compare it to the DNA of the “suspect”

DNA fingerprinting or gene mapping Method of comparing different strands of DNA with those of other species or with other people Method used for formal pregnancy test, crime investigations, and other forensics Gel electrophoresis

Genetic Engineering Scientists alter genes of an organism – Usually done by Inserting DNA from one organism into another – DNA that has been genetically modified is called recombinant DNA – Organisms with recombinant DNA are called genetically modified organisms (GMO) or transgenic organisms

Transgenic organisms ro8&feature=player_detailpage ro8&feature=player_detailpage

Applications for gene manipulation Transgenic bacteria in agriculture Transgenic bacteria in Industry Transgenic bacteria in Medicine Genetically engineered food Transgenic plants and animals

Transgenic bacteria in agriculture Once species of bacteria have been used successfully on agricultural crops already Specific bacteria naturally occurs on strawberry plants that promotes frost damage in strawberries because bacteria has ice crystals that form around specific protein – Scientists have been able to isolate the gene for this protein, and prevent frost damage – This saves farmers money, provides jobs to scientists who research and develop this type of transgenic bacteria, and provides higher quality and quantity of strawberries

Transgenic bacteria in Industry Scientists have been able to engineer bacteria to be able to break down harmful pollutants into harmless chemicals – Helps environment and provides jobs Ex: There is a specific bacteria that naturally breaks down oil based compounds. – Scientists genetically engineered bacteria to break down oil at a much faster pace, and with better results

Transgenic bacteria in medicine Pharmaceutical companies have developed the widespread use of specific molecules-made by transgenic bacteria that help to treat human diseases Ex: – Human Growth Hormone-given to individuals suffering from dwarfism – Chemotherapy drug  Interferon to treat cancer – Insulin to treat diabetes – Artificial sweeteners are made from transgenic bacteria-produce phenylalanine

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Transgenic plants Plants and animals are much harder to engineer, because they do not contain plasmids  What are they again? Plants – Difficult to engineer, due to thick cell wall – Must use artificial vectors such as a gene gun or a micropipette  in other words, they must be done in a lab and not in nature – Main purpose  to be able to resist herbisides, produce their own pesticides, or to increase their crop production

Transgenic animals Animals usually will not accept a bacterial plasmid as a vector, so manual engineering with a gene gun or a pipette are used when possible Manipulated genes are inserted into unfertilized eggs Egg gets fertilized and transgenic traits or properties are expressed Uses  with livestock-placing human proteins into livestock so they produce milk with these proteins already in them – Ex: There is a protein that dissolves blood clots  transgenic goats have the protein in their milk, so if person drinks milk, they can dissolve blood clots Not very far in development – Still a very young field – Ethical issues

Human Genome Project In 2000  scientists from 6 countries all worked together and figured out the “book of life” Wanted to “map out” all nucleotides or bases that give the template for a human Achieved a blueprint of the whole sequence of bases for humans Genomics  study of entire genomes – Study of all bases in an entire organism

Surprise findings Humans have few genes – Scientists thought 120,000 genes – Reality  25,000 genes Most DNA is non-coding  less than 2% actually codes for traits We share majority of our DNA with other species – 50% same as a fly, 75% same as dog, 30% same as banana, and 98% same as chimp We all share about 99.9% of our DNA with each other

Useful applications Food crops  90-95% of all corn you eat has been genetically modified. – Most food has been modified to be better for you, or to increase production Livestock  most are being modified to have leaner healthier meat Medicine  a gene can be isolated from a normal individual, and then normal protein can be made to cure or help the person with the disorder

Manipulating bodies and development In lab=Cloning  process used to create identical DNA fragments, cells, or whole organisms In nature=asexual reproduction

Cloning When you clone an old organism, the newly formed organism’s DNA will have the same age as the organism. – New organism has all the mutations that have occurred in old organism – Ex: Baby sheep would have old DNA but still be young and a baby – Effects: Increased aging rate Increased mutations Shorter life span More genetic issues Abnormal development Ethical issues

Four steps to cloning 1.fragmentation - breaking apart a strand of DNA 2.ligation - gluing together pieces of DNA in a desired sequence 3.transformation - inserting the newly formed pieces of DNA into cells 4.screening/selection - selecting out the cells that were successfully transferred with the new DNA

Stem cells 3 types: – Totipotent-can become any type of cell – Pluripotent-can be anything but a sex cell – Multipotent-can be just a few other types Ex: bone marrow cells Adult stem cells  cells are removed, and used to grow more cells of specific tissue types – Used to replace damaged tissue Embryonic stem cells-cells from embryos have potential to become all different types of cells

Uses for stem cells To help aid in some cancers such as ones that are tumor related Transplants Genetic engineering Organ failure Embryonic  almost anything

Steps for creating stem cells

Typical Human 23 pairs of chromosomes=46 total that vary in size 22 regular, and 1 sex pair 3 billion base pairs