Class 27: History of 19 th C Dr. Ann T. Orlando 6 April 2016

Introduction Napoleon Political History of 19 th C Social and Economic Developments

Napoleon ( ) Born in Corsica, attends Ecole Militaire in France Napoleon rises rapidly in French military; brilliant strategist  Battle of Rivoli against Austrians (1797)  Battle of Pyramids against Muslim army (1798) In a coup d’etat Napoleon seizes control of France; Napoleon declares himself First Consular (1799)  Battle of Marengo against Austrians (1800) Napoleon has himself declared Emperor, crowns himself (1804)  Napoleon invades Russia 1812 Because of military defeats, Napoleon toppled form power, sent into exile; Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) assumes throne Napoleon returns to France, raises another army, defeated at Waterloo, Belgium by British 1815 Napoleon sent into exile at St. Helena’s; dies there in 1821

070.htm

Napoleon: Relations with Church Social: Napoleonic Code  Supports divorce  Catholics opposed to Revolution who had hoped Napoleon would restore ‘Catholic France’, now think only hope for Catholic France is restoration on Monarchy Concordat of 1801  Ended schism between clergy who signed Civil Constitution and those who did not  Napoleon named bishops, but Pope ordained them  Clergy paid by state  Reinstated Gallican articles of 1682  In effect, made Catholicism in France a state Church Napoleon invaded Papal States in 1808  Pius VII excommunicated Napoleon; Napoleon takes him captive  Congress of Vienna, 1815, returns control of Papal States to Pope

Effect of Pius VII Stance Against Napoleon Re-established moral authority of Church, even for non-Catholics Many people convert to Catholicism Re-established Jesuits in 1814  Renewed activity in Jesuit Education (e.g., Georgetown, BC, HC, Fordham) Renewed appreciation for Catholic intellectual life

Congress of Vienna (1815) After Battle of Waterloo, victors (England, Austria, Russia, Prussia) gather to try to restore Europe as it was before Napoleon Prince Klemens von Metternich  The architect of the Congress of Vienna,  His main goal was to support conservative governments in Europe and to establish a Balance of Power; this was to prevent another power dominating Europe as had France. The wartime allies against Napoleon: Austria, Britain, Russia, and Prussia signed the Quadruple Alliance, pledging them to uphold the peace settlement by entering into any war on behalf of he other. Reestablished Papal States under control of Papacy

France After Napoleon Brief restoration of monarchy Revolution 1848 French Republics Two powerful competing groups of Catholics in France  Ultramontanes want strong Papacy to help rebuild French unity and culture; return to throne and altar  Liberals want some aspects of pre-revolutionary French philosophes incorporated into Catholicism; individual freedom, democracy

England 17 th – 19 th C George I Hanover George III reigns  American Revolution Queen Victoria  During her reign Parliament becomes increasingly important relative to monarchy  By end of reign monarchy is head of State, not head of Government England becomes dominant world power  “The sun never sets on the British crown”

Holy Roman Empire Napoleon ends Hapsburg line of Holy Roman Emperors in Spain and Austria; conquers all of Germany After defeat of Napoleon, Congress of Vienna, 1815,  Creation of German Confederation, semi-autonomous states Revolution of 1848 Rise of Bismarck and strong (anti-Catholic) national German government 1859  King as figure head

Italy 17 th and 18 th C various Italian States split between Austria (north) and Spain (south), except for Papal States 19 th C Napoleon conquered all of Italy; after Napoleon political turmoil; Congress of Vienna, 1815, restores Papal States Revolution of 1848 starts process of Italian unification  King Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi as political leader 1861  Forcible annexation of Papal States in 1870 completes unification

Industrial Revolution Narrowly defined, transformation of England in 18 th C from agricultural to manufacturing as something that employs majority of population  Improved agricultural methods in 17 th and 18 C  Application of scientific discoveries: Invention of steam engine and cotton gin  Huge economic and social impact in 19 th C But comes to include and define the difference between first world and third world countries

Adam Smith ( ) Born in Scotland, close friend with David Hume Father of modern economics  Does for economics what Locke did for political philosophy Wealth of Nations (1776)  Discover the natural (scientific) principles of economics  Each person seeks to maximize his own gain  Enters into agreements to ‘barter’ skills for wages  In a market of perfect freedom, each person and nation can bargain to own advantage  Through free trade the invisible hand of supply and demand ensures that no one is taken advantage of  When governments attempt to regulate free trade, then the public welfare and prosperity are threatened

Social Changes Wrought by Industrial Revolution Generalization: before Industrial Revolution  Families and small towns fundamental economic as well as social unit; Economic self-sufficiency in small geographic areas  Family farms or farming in common, family artisans; hand- produced small quantities; what is sold is crops or crafts  Majority of population is rural  Large towns and cities: seats of ecclesial and civil government Generalization: after Industrial Revolution  Fundamental economic units are large private farms and mercantile organizations  Economic units become very specialized and very large; what the individual sells is his labor (remember John Locke)  Majority of people live around new economic centers: cities  Being rural poor is horrible; being urban poor is worse

Energy for Industrial Revolution Steam Engine  James Watt patented in 1769  Efficient way to turn coal into energy; England has lots of coal Inventions using steam engines very quickly follow and dramatically change manufacturing But the most visible and symbolic, immediate invention was the railroad  To build railroad required lots of technology, masses of cheap labor directed toward a common economic goal  Opened way for mass migration  Connected previously independent areas into common economic units

Rail Lines England

So Why Is a Map of England’s Railroads part of Church History? Because Pope Gregory XVI ( ) banned railroads from the Papal States  Concerned about disruption to social life in Papal States  Concerned about monopoly and materialism of railroads  Railroad tried to bribe the Pope Inequality between workers and capitalists,  Leads to workers revolts of 1848,  New political movements, Communism

Background to Revolutions of 1848 Industrial Revolution had created a class of urban poor laborers  Barely able to survive on subsistence wages  Disruption of family (child labor in industry very different from working family farm)  Survival of the fittest (Malthus, Essay on Principle of Population, 1789) Disruption in basic social patterns leads to disillusionment with society, including established religions Efforts to change conditions for laborers often united with atheism, or at least separate from religion  Reread Charles Dickens, A Christmas Carol, 1843 Religious response  St. Vincent de Paul Society (1833)  YMCA (1844): In 1844, industrialized London was a place of great turmoil and despair. For the young men who migrated to the city from rural areas to find jobs, London offered a bleak landscape of tenement housing and dangerous influences. From YMCA website;  Salvation Army (1865)

Gustav Dore Scripture Reader in a Night Shelter groups.msn.com/HOMELESSinbaltimoremd/gustavedore.msnw?action=Show Photo&PhotoID=13

Socialism and Communism Associated with ‘free thinkers’ Specifically targeted economic and social models (unlike philosophes a century earlier who attacked political models)  Opposed to private property Criticized religious response as basically one of keeping the laborer in his place Friedrich Engels, Conditions of Working Class in England (1844)

Prolog Communist Manifest A spectre is haunting Europe -- the spectre of communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Tsar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies. Where is the party in opposition that has not been decried as communistic by its opponents in power? Where is the opposition that has not hurled back the branding reproach of communism, against the more advanced opposition parties, as well as against its reactionary adversaries? Two things result from this fact: I. Communism is already acknowledged by all European powers to be itself a power. II. It is high time that Communists should openly, in the face of the whole world, publish their views, their aims, their tendencies, and meet this nursery tale of the spectre of communism with a manifesto of the party itself. To this end, Communists of various nationalities have assembled in London and sketched the following manifesto, to be published in the English, French, German, Italian, Flemish and Danish languages.

What is a Liberal? Based on 17 th C word, libertine, meaning one of loose morals; a free thinker In 19 th C, liberals are heirs of philosophes,  Individual freedom, rights and right to property  Fundamental function of government was to safeguard those rights; minimalist governments  Notion of a meritocracy  Free market economies; ‘invisible hand of market place’

John Stuart Mill ( ) Father, James Mill, was an historian and student of Jeremy Bentham  John raised without any religious instruction  Was instructed in classical Greek and Roman literature  Studied in France and became part of French liberal philosophical scene Elected to House of Commons in 1865 as a liberal  Champion of women’s rights Philosophical works include  Logic and language  Scientific method  Psychology  Politics  Moral philosophy of Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism Based on work by Jeremy Bentham to find a new basis for morality after the ‘overthrow’ of religion Utility is equated with Epicurean happiness  Maximize pleasure for greatest numbers, minimize pain  Actions should be governed by “The Greatest Happiness” as their ends But it is the greatest happiness in this life Dominant moral perspective today

Assignments 1. Karl Marx, Scientific Socialism, available at summary.htmlhttp:// summary.html 2. John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism, Chapters 2 and 5, available at

Assignments 1. Karl Marx, Scientific Socialism, available at summary.htmlhttp:// summary.html 2. John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism, Chapters 2 and 5, available at Bokenkotter, Chapters 25, 26, 27