Nigeria

Sovereignty, Authority, Power 1960: Independent nation “National Question”- who should rule and how? – Constitutionalism- not enforced by military leaders…thrown out if not liked – 9 constitutions ( ) Regional disagreements & hostilities – Border disputes and rebels Military force to solve problems

Sovereignty, Authority, Power (Legitimacy) Fragmentation: – ethnic – Religious – regional lines Economic exploitation Military = stability in unstable country No trust for government leaders British Rule ( ) – Now, rule of law abandoned Ex: General Ibrahim Babangida & General Sani Abacha Tax money to private bank accounts Presidents military past – Exception: Umaru Yar’Adua

Sovereignty, Authority, Power (Political Traditions) PRE-COLONIAL ERA ( ) Centralized states Trade connections – Niger River (South) – Sahara Desert (North) Early Islamic influences – Came by trade – Arabic education – Muslim Religion replaced traditional customs & religion Islamic religious law = Sharia Elite governed All citizens subordinate to elite

Sovereignty, Authority, Power (Political Traditions) PRE-COLONIAL ERA ( ) CONTINUED Kinship-based politics (biological, cultural, descent) – S. villages ruled by family leaders – S. business through kinship ties – N. has larger states Complex political identities – State and local government indistinct – S. centralized kingdoms merge (ex: Oyo & Ife) – N. Trading States Democratic impulses – Latent traditions – Yoruba and Igbo early democracy governing in interest of the people – People remove leaders – Good of community

Sovereignty, Authority, Power (Political Traditions) Colonial Era ( ) Interventionist State – Chiefs did what British said – Citizens passively accept rulers’ decrees Individualism – Capitalism & western political thought Importance of the individual Chiefs – personal benefit NOT good of community Christianity – British missionaries – Brought to South Nigeria – North Muslim – Fragmentation

Sovereignty, Authority, Power (Political Traditions) Colonial Era ( ) CONTINUED Intensification of Ethnic Politics – Ethnic identities: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo Yoruba – Anti-colonial movement, 20 th century – British Pitted 3 ethnicities against each other Patronage (+): – Education, money, jobs Authoritarian rule: – British rule indirectly – Traditional chiefs do as British say – Less responsibility to citizens= LESS DEMOCRACY

Sovereignty, Authority, Power (Political Traditions) Era after Independence (1960-present) Parliamentary becomes presidential – : Parliamentary style Ethnic divisions : – no majority party: » fall of parliamentary – 1979: Presidential system Popularly elected president Not Prime Minister Separate legislature and independent judiciary Checks & balances not stable President= POWER Intensification of ethnic conflict – Hausa-Fulani dominated parliamentary gov. – Majority coalition of Igbo & Hausa-Fulani v. Yoruba 2 groups fought for power – 1966 Igbo Military rule

Sovereignty, Authority, Power (Political Traditions) Era after Independence (1960-present) Military rule – Agiya Ironsi = first military ruler Goal = stop political corruption & end violence Killed in coup – Coup sparked Biafra Civil War ( ) Igbo fight for independence created more violence Personalized rule & corruption – Individualism personal gain – Lost democratic traditions

Sovereignty, Authority, Power (Political Traditions) Era after Independence (1960-present) Federalism (attempted) – Delegated powers to state governments Did not work – Greed of military presidents – State remained unitary in Abuja (capital city) Economic dependence on Oil – Liability Corruption in leaders – Oil $ goes to elite – Economy follows oil trends

Sovereignty, Authority, Power (Political Culture) Patron- clientelism (prebendalism) – Exchanging political & economic favors among leaders & lesser elites (corruption) China and Mexico – Presidents give clients portion of oil revenue – Patron – client link Ethnicity and religion State control/rich civil society-civil society – Areas out of government control – Attempt to control all aspects of life through military never succeeded – (in)formal ethnic and religious associations, professional and labor groups, NGO’s shape society

Sovereignty, Authority, Power (Political Culture) Tension between modernity and tradition – Colonialism: subservient economic position (please sir, may I have some more) – Independence gained No modernity – ethnic conflict & corruption – Independence movement reestablished traditional customs pre-colonial v. colonial customs conflict Religious conflict – Islam to Christianity – Muslims = North – Christians = South – Sharia = Muslim law/ N. support – Common Law= British/ S. support

Sovereignty, Authority, Power (Political Culture) Geographic influences (140 million) – NW: Muslim Hausa-Fulani – NE: Many small groups (Kanuri) Muslim – Middle belt Mix of religions (Islam and Christianity) – SW Large ethnic group (Yoruba) 40% Muslim, 20% native, 40% Christianity – SE: Igbo Roman catholic Protestants growing – The Southern Zone: Delta of NIGER RIVER Various minority groups

Political and Economic Change (Political & Economic change (divided in 3)) Pre-Colonial Era CE Nigerian geography dictates political, social, and economic – N Savanna easy trade through Saharan Berber – Forested areas of S no Berber trade – Cultural diffusion contact with, spread of customs and beliefs – Islam religion – Fulani came from (Jihad) Islamic holy war expedient to change

Political and Economic Change (Political & Economic change (divided in 3)) Pre-Colonial Era CE – South = Atlantic Ocean Trade Christianity conversion through trade Slave Trade (16 th to 19 th C.) – Portuguese first to use slaves – 17 th century » Dutch » British » French » Spanish brought Nigerians to New World – 1808-Fulani established Sokoto Caliphate (a Muslim state encompassing NW, N, midsection, and NE) Trade with Europeans British colonial rule Ex. organized central government based on religion

Political and Economic Change (Political & Economic change (divided in 3)) Colonial Era indirect British rule Chiefs in South British minions Trade outlet along coast – strongest British influence Trade – natural resources and cheap human labor North Islamic tradition: – No British influence N and S division

Political and Economic Change (Political & Economic change (divided in 3)) Colonial Era Western style education – by Christian missionaries 1934-higher education institutionalized first university Literate population Elites more elite – Caused by education – north divided from south Elites “more deserving” of benefits Northerners = backward

Political and Economic Change (Political & Economic change (divided in 3)) Modern 1960-present – transfer power: leaders to civilians “when country was stable” 1993 – First time country is stable – But coup soon after 1966 parliament style becomes military style – Coups frequent 1979 – military dictator: Olusegun Obasanjo – stood down to democratic president Shehu Shagari 1983 – Shehu Shagari overthrown – coup lead by Muhammed Buhari 2 other coups Military dictatorship until Obasanjo BACK as CIVILIAN

Political and Economic Change (Political & Economic change (divided in 3)) Modern 1960-present 1999,2003,2007 – growing fraud and violence in elections No nationalism “National question” PROBLEM – Ethnic identities = basis for conflict – Enhanced by the British Corruption among political elite – General Ibrahim B. Babangida & General Sani Abacha – large bank accounts by patron system Democracy (seemed imminent) – Obasanjo’s 99 & 03 elections – Eluded with voting fraud British preparation for Nigerian rule Western style education taught political values – freedom, justice, equal opportunity – Caused decolonization

Citizens Society & THE State (democratization is challenging) Poverty – 60% below poverty – Many absolute poverty Economic gap – Not likely to shrink: large gap – Unequal distribution of income Few wealthy rule Many poor Health issues – High HIV/AIDs rates 1/11 probability – Secondary priority NGO’s – Medications provided under Obasanjo administration Literacy – 75.5% males – 60.6% females – High for Africa but low for the world – World average = 87% men 77% women

Citizens Society & THE State (cleavages) Ethnicity – Three largest groups Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba – Have little in common – can’t speak each other’s languages – Little contact with each other – separate ethnic groups Own customs, languages, and religions Religion – Political culture complex competing religions – 50% Muslim,40% Christian,10% native – Differences cause ethnic tensions – Christian preference by British – Sharia religious law disputes

Citizens Society & THE State (cleavages) Region: North v. South – 3 federated regions created 1955 Follow ethnic and religious lines – Different election and legislative procedures – Different ethnic and religious customs – Political party affiliations Urban v Rural – Cities political org. interest groups, newspapers, electronic media, organized protests – Ken Saro-Wiwa rights activists and environmentalist executed 1995 in rural Nigeria Social class – Elite wealthy control state and resources – Appeal to ethnic and religious identities – More educated – Want democratic modern nation

Citizens Society & THE State (public opinion & political participation) Patron-clientelism (prebendalism) – more likely w/ rural – Prebendelism: Weber’s concept extremely personalized system of rule; public offices treated as personal fiefdoms – Patronage causes discredited officals – Corruption seen more often with political elites

Citizens Society & THE State (public opinion & political participation) Civil society – Trade unions and professional org. protect rights of their members Ex: National Union of Petrol and Gas workers – Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People founded by Ken Saro-Wiwa financial benefits for Ogoni Hold foreign companies to environmental standards – Interest groups and informal volunteer associations influence political decisions 1999: – Some unified government, other fragmented it

Citizens Society & THE State (public opinion & political participation) Voting behavior – National elections since 1959 – Prevalent Voting fraud cancellation postponement – Many political parties most created by personal following – 1993 : election annulment loss of political participation – 1999 & 2003 large voter turnout – 2007 impossible to calculate turnout because of Fraud

Citizens Society & THE State (public opinion & political participation) Attitudes toward government – Low level of trust – Unfair elections – 6 in 10 Nigerians want democracy – Ranked 142/ 146 cleanliness of government Protest, Participation, social movements – Oil companies are target for protest – 2002 protest on Chevron plant women jobs for sons – Violent and peaceful protests – 2006 to present violent protests v. foreign based oil companies – Ethnic and religious movements force gov’t to address grievances

Political Institutions (Linkage Institutions) Linkage Institutions – Political Parties Regional and ethnic based Multi-party system – Factionalism » many parties – Coherent party system- impossible – Disappear, appear, and reorganize Major parties coalescing (seen by Action Congress merge) Parties losing regional base PDP started in North – Ran S. Obasanjo to gain support – Dominant party Independent National Election Commission (INEC) – 2007 election- corruption – Sets up election rules – 5% of votes in 2/3 of the states to run started in 1998

Political Institutions (Linkage Institutions) 2007 election: parties supported candidates – The People’s Democratic Party (PDP) » Better-est. » 1998 election first » Olusegun Obasanjo (2003) candidate » Umaru Yar’Adua (2007) candidate » National Assembly majority » Most governors in this party – All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) » General Muhammed Buhari (2003) candidate » Chuba Okadigbo possible future candidate – Action Congress (AC) » Merged Alliance for Democracy, Justice Party, Advance Congress of Democrats, and other minor parties in 2006 » VP Atiku Abubakar (2007) candidate for President

Political Institutions (Elections & Electoral Procedures) National Elections – Presidential elections First in 1993 (but annulled) First real one 1999, 2003 Outright majority needed 25% of all the votes cast in 2/3 of states – In order to unify country – Regional candidate can’t win – Legislative elections Senate: – 109 senators – 3 from each of 36 states – 1 from federal capital (Abuja) – Direct popular vote Representatives – 539 representatives – Elected by single member districts by plurality vote – Regional representation, wide ethnicity

Political Institutions (Elections & Electoral Procedures) Election Fraud – April 12, 2003: 12 died – Politicians assassinated i.e. Marshall Harry (ANPP) – INEC declared 6 million names fraudulent – Struck from voter rolls – Ballot boxes Vandalized, stolen, stuffed with fraudulent names – 2007 elections National legislative, presidential race, state and local flawed No privacy in voting 200 died INEC VP Abudkar DQed from President race – overruled by Supreme Court Ballots contain party symbols= fraud – Obasanjo Wanted to run 3 rd time (Constitution change)

Political Institutions (Interest Groups) Labor Unions – Before 1980: independent and politically powerful – Challenged government Colonial and post-colonial – Babangida regime limited union influence – Corporatism gov. approved interest groups provide feedback to gov. – Central labor organization created – Babangida approves labor leader candidates – July 2003 unions attempt to raise oil prices

Political Institutions (Interest Groups) Business Interest – Business interests with military regimes – Share spoils of corruption with elite Ex. Manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms – 1990s promote economic reform Human Rights Groups – Promote human rights – University students, teaches, civil liberties org., and professional groups (doctors, lawyers) Protest Babangida and Abacha regimes – Want democratic reform – Street demonstrations and protests ( ) – Loosely connected

Political Institutions (Mass Media) Well-developed independent press General Abacha – Closed influential newspapers and magazines Press reflects ethnic divisions Outspoken newspapers in South S. criticisms seen as ethnic slurs to N. Media spread 2007 election events Radio main source of info Newspapers and TV common in city 36 states run own radio stations

Political Institutions (overview) Federal political system in theory Local, state and national gov. levels Executive branch dominates Constitution allows for 3 branches 2 nd, 3 rd, and 4 th Republics – presidential system 36 state government 774 local government State and local – executive & legislative branch – local, district, and state courts Federalism and checks & balances not in effect

Political Institutions (The Institutions of National Government) Executive Presidential system unlike Britain Popularly elected President symbolize unity Two-term limit on President – The Executive under Military Rule 7 military rulers “transition to democracy” theme – General Obasanjo and General Abubakar gave this power Concentrate power with executive President appoints officials – No Senate approval No checks – Patrimonialsim President head of patron-client system Gives gov. jobs and resources to supporters – Cabinet positions, bureaucracy chiefs, and other gov. jobs Unstable system with current overthrown generals

Political Institutions (The Bureaucracy) Para-statals- – Corporations owned by the state – commercial and social welfare – Private ownership – Boards appointed by government – Executives chosen by patronage – Public utilities: Water, electricity, public transportation, agricultural subsidies Steel, defense products, and petroleum

Political Institutions (The Bureaucracy) State corporatism – Authoritarian system – Input by interest groups – State Controls private interest – Para-statal Contact between gov’t and business interests Inefficient Corrupt NEPA Never Except Power Again – ex of para-statal

Political Institutions (Legislature) Disbanded by military multiple times Reps and Senators serve 4 years Representatives – 360 members – Single-member districts – Plurality election – Many different ethnicities The Senate: – Based on U.S. Senate – Large diversity – 109 senators in Upper house 3 from all 36 states 1 from Abuja Popular vote

Political Institutions (Legislature) Little power Gaining effective check National Assembly – vetoed constitution change Corrupt officials – 1999 President of Senate and speaker of the lower House forgery caused removal 6.4% women in House 3.7% women in Senate Elections week before Presidential elections Until parliamentary 1979-present: presidential & bicameral – Known as National Assembly

Political Institutions (Judiciary) Autonomy in early years Common law Sharia & traditional Independent from executive Military caused corruption – Undermined power Patronage elected judges Not well-educated and biased judges

Political Institutions (Judiciary) Judicial review existed in theory Sharia courts v British law 1999 constitution – Est. Supreme court, federal court of appeals, single- unified court system (at national and state levels) Most controversial = Islamic 2 NOTORIOUS CASES – Mshood Abiolao-1993 election winner annulled by Babangida Justice not served…died in custody – 1995 Ken Sar-Wiwa & 8 other Ogonis detained and hanged by court order

Political Institutions (Military) Strong force Lost Credibility first military coup “Military in government “ v. “military in barracks” – later = traditional duties in military not in politics Internal discord Blocked democratic reforms National in character Restores order – Ex. During ethnic cleavages conflict Best, brightest, most ambitious

Public Policy Power=President President has outside input – Est. by patron-clientelism and cabinet members Senior gov’t officials have support of junior officials – “loyalty pyramid” Pyramids backed by guns Pyramids operate by self-interest Self-interest roots back to British IDEAL – responsible to community and others State control of resources=spoils to elite – Kaduna Maffia, Babangida’s boys, Abacha’s boys loyal clients

Public Policy (Economic Overview) Deeply in debt Poverty people Loyalty pyramid = unequal distribution of wealth Ethnic and regional hostilities Distrust of government Revenue sharing – allows entire country to benefit from offshore oil profits – “northern policy”

Public Policy (Economic Issues) Oil: Strength or Weakness? – State controls nations revenue – Rents = Earnings (mainly) from oil – Individualist groups compete for gov’t $ rent seeking – patronage= more money – President controls who get money – Unreported incomes: small scale trade subsistence agriculture

Public Policy (Economic Issues) Oil: Strength or Weakness? – Member of OPEC – Leverage over developed countries Middle-eastern tension = busier Nigerian oil – Fluctuation in oil prices economic boom and bust – 2006: Niger delta violence against foreign based oil companies – Foreign companies bad take away income from locals – Willbros one of the largest independent contractors driven away by locals – Losing business because of violence

Public Policy (Economic Issues) Structural adjustment – International help with managing debt after oil prices plummet – S.A. Program(1995): Babangida Regime World Bank and International Monetary fund support Restructure and diversify Nigerian economy Loose dependence on oil Government pledge: – Privatize para-statals – Reduce gov’t spending “Shock treatment” – repay debts is not working as planned – no significant change Current large national debt

Public Policy (“federal character”) Pros Positive-- desirable Power shared Represented well More contact with government True democratic rule “Federal character” – recognizes people of all regions ethnicities and religions taking their needs into account

Public Policy (“federal character”) CONS Divides more than unifies Promotes corruption Faux jobs created to meet quota Legislature chambers – competition for political benefits Federalism can only exist if… – federal gov’t decentralizes Northerners don’t like True Federalism – N. don’t have as much revenue – No direct benefit Southerners want control of Oil Constitution supports – Ex: President, Senate & Reps must receive 25% of votes in 2/3 of states

Public Policy (democratization overview) Limitation of economic control of central gov’t Privatized economy Alleviating poverty slowly Increase in public wages – to combat bribery General Abacha – returned stashed money to treasury Financial reserves growth – oil prices rising Reforms show stabilization? – patron-clientelism---(U.S. political machines) – Growing(farces)--- (U.S. started with voter fraud) Hopeful for future democracy

Public Policy (Democratization) Some checks and balances between gov.branches – Legislative rejected change in Constitution Obasanjo’s attempt to run 3 terms Some independent decisions the courts – President Obasanjo Prevented Atiku Abuabakar from running in 2007 election – Supreme Court favored Abuabakar Revival of civil society – Civic and religious groups – reactivated after military rule

Public Policy (Democratization) Independent media – 2007 election: correspondents reported : – intimidated voters, phony results, and Stuffed ballet boxes (36 states) – Internet & cell phones brought election fraud to light Peaceful succession of power – Power passed between 2 civilians peacefully: President Olusegun Obasanjo to Umaru Yar’Adua in 2007 Improving Freedom House ranking – 1976: 25 out of 36 states were not free 2007: 14 not free – Nigeria had rank of 4 in 2007 Partially free – Freedom House: org. ranks countries around world on 1-7 freedom scale 1= most free 7= least free

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