2. From Syllabus Design to Curriculum Development By J. C. Richards

Problems of old syllabus-Lack of contextual materials, relationships in sentences, excessive controls, etc: English for No Specific Purpose (Darian, 1972) Oral approach revived-structural syllabus with graded vocabulary, structures in situations, Presentation-Practice- Production(PPP)-Situational approach, Structural-situational approach, Situational Language Teaching The Quest for New Methods

TESL/TEFL Methods-Audiolingual Method(ALM): Language as habits & reinforcement, intolerance for mistakes, Language as behaviors (behaviorism) -Need for translators during the War -Audiovisual Method in Europe - Bandwagons of methods to remedy the “language learning and teaching problems” (Lange, 1990) The Quest for New Methods

Lack of considering learners’ needs (Jupp & Hodlin, 1975): Importance of considering why people learn a SL Council of Europe (1969) -need for removing language barriers while preserving linguistic diversity as a source of intellectual enrichment than obstacle for the unity (compromising approach) -study modern European languages for mutual understanding & cooperation Changing needs for FL in Europe

 Unit-credit system by Council of Europe: Units of work with definitions of terminal behaviors & a system of credit ratings (Kingsbury, 1971)  Threshold Level: The lowest level of general foreign language ability to be recognized in the unit-credit system( Van EK & Alexander, 1975) Changing needs for FL in Europe

 Emergence of CLT in Europe  Move from changes in teaching methods to consideration of the whole context of teaching & learning and societal & learner needs  Learning targets described with the unit- credit system & threshold level Changing needs for FL in Europe

 Language for specific purposes(LSP) or ESP - Need for serving non-English background students - Need for serving advanced students for jobs in various fields - English for business purposes - English for immigrants English for specific purposes(ESP)

 Continued emphasis on selection & gradation with addition of situational languages  Lack of including functional uses and roles of learners in communicative contexts  U.S.-limitation of advanced & colloquial English English for specific purposes(ESP)

 Need for curriculum & instruction for learners’ specific occupations & situations- scientific English, Business English, Technical English (Word frequency, discourse analysis-See p. 29)  Register & discourse analysis as early form of ESP English for specific purposes(ESP)

 A variety of language according to its use: ex) journalism, medicine, law  Martin(1997)-Resigter of academic vocabulary -Research process: formulate, investigate, analyze, drawing conclusion, reporting results -Vocabulary of analysis: consist of, group result from, derive, based on, be noted for -Vocabulary of evaluation: exhaustive, controversial, coherent, indispensable, pervasive, substantive, inductive-deductive Register Analysis

 Linguistic structure of longer samples of speech or text: analysis of unites of organization (ex: narrative, instruction, reports, business letters) -See problem-solution structure on p.31  ESP spurred Needs analysis Discourse Analysis

 Content of ESP (Strevens, 1977): Restriction of basic skills, Selection of specific words & grammar, Themes & topics, communicative needs  Learners needs for using particular languages, functions, situations  Munby model: A profile of learner’s communicative needs (Schutz & Derwing, 1981)-p. 34 Needs analysis in ESP

 Taxonomy of 300 subskills by Munby -lexical cohesion: repetition, synonymity, hyponymity, antithesis, apposition, lexical set/collocation, pro-forms/general words -grammatical cohesion: reference, comparison, substitution, ellipsis, time and place relaters, logical connectors Needs analysis in ESP

 Synthetic (Type A) syllabus: Careful control of linguistic features  Analytic (Type B) syllabus: Focus on behavior or performance  Willkins (1976): Notional syllabus -Notion:semantico-grammatical meaning, modal meaning, communicative functions CLT

 Semantico-grammatical meaning -Time: point of time, duration, time relations, frequency, sequence -Quantity: divided & undivided reference, numerals, operations  Modal meaning: modality, scale of certainty, Scale of commitment  Communicative functions: request, complaints, apologies, compliments, suggestions, etc. Notional Syllabus

 Yalden (1987): components of communicative & functional syllabus: Purposes, setting, roles of learners, communicative events, language functions, notions, discourse & rhetorical skills, variety of TL, grammatical & lexical content Notional-Functional Syllabus

 Curriculum studies: Curriculum as a broader concept than syllabi & include “what pupil learn, how they learn, how teachers help them learn, using what supporting materials, styles and methods of assessemnt, and in what kind of facilitie..(Rodgers, 1989) Emergence of a curriculum approach in language teaching

 Tyler (1950) -educational purposes of schools -educational experiences to provide to achieve goals -how to organize learning experiences effectively -how to measure the attainment of goals Emergence of a curriculum approach in language teaching

 Tyler: Aims & objectives-> Content -> Organization -> Evaluation  Objectives described from the perspective of learners  Models of curriculum & training proliferated (Inglis, 1975) 1. Need: Aims & objectives 2. Plan: Strategies & Tactics 3. Implementation: Methods & Techniques 4. Review: Evaluation & Consolidation Emergence of a curriculum approach in language teaching

 Critics of Tyler’s: too technical & rationalistic, linear, evaluation not built in the process  Cyclical model(Nicholls & Nicholls, 1972) or ends-means model: See p. 40  Systems-design model: include all components (Briggs, 1977): See p. 41-still rule descriptive & rule driven Emergence of a curriculum approach in language teaching

 National curriculum from curriculum development perspective (Lim, 1988): Need analysis, goal setting, syllabus design, materials design, language program design, teacher preparation, implementation of program in schools, monitoring, feedback & evaluation Emergence of a curriculum approach in language teaching

 The range of planning and implementation processes involved in developing or renewing a curriculum, which includes needs analysis, situation analysis, planning learning outcomes, course organization, selecting & preparing teaching materials, providing for effective teaching, & evaluation: a network of interactive system, teachers at the center of planning & decision-making Definition of curriculum development

 Johnson (1989): Developmental stages, Decision-making roles, Products  Clark (1987): process of curriculum renewal -review of principles; reworking of aims, objectives, content, & methodology; review of teaching/learning strategies; choice, adaptation, & creation of resources; review of assessment, review of classroom schemes, review & creation of strategies to help teachers, identification of research areas, review & devising of inservice education Stages, decision-making roles & products in curriculum development