Sports in Society: Issues and Controversies Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity: Are They Important in Sports?

The challenges created by racial and ethnic diversity are among the most important ones that we face as we live, work, and play together in the twenty-first century Photo by Mike Collins

Race =... a population of people who are believed to be naturally or biologically distinct from other populations. Race depends on a classification system through which meanings are given to particular physical traits.

Ethnicity =... a cultural heritage that people use to identify a particular population. An ethnic population = a category of people regarded as socially distinct because they share a way of life, a collective history, and a sense of themselves as a people.

Ethnic minority =... a socially identified population that suffers disadvantages due to systematic discrimination and has a strong sense of social togetherness based on shared experiences of past and current discrimination.

Creating race: The origins of an ideology Racial classification systems were developed as white Europeans explored and colonized the globe and found that there were physical differences between people.  These systems were used to justify colonization, conversion, and even slavery and genocide.  According to these systems, white skin was the standard, and dark skin was associated with intellectual inferiority and slowed development.

Racial ideology... interrelated ideas and beliefs that are widely used to classify human beings in categories assumed to b biological and related to attributes such as intelligence, temperament, and physical abilities Racial ideology has been used by white people to  Give themselves moral permission to colonize and exploit dark-skinned people without guilt  Define dark-skinned people as “the white man’s burden” in need of moral salvation and civilizing

Racial ideology in the United States Between the 17 th and 20 th centuries a person’s humanity and moral worth came to be associated with skin color because 1.White Americans needed justification for political expansion. 2.Whites Americans sought to control blacks after the abolition of slavery. 3.Scientists claimed to have proof of the natural inferiority of “colored” people and the natural superiority of people with “Caucasian” ancestry. In the U.S., whiteness became the foundation for an American identity and a prerequisite for citizenship.

Racial ideologies tend to support Racism: attitudes, actions, and policies based on the belief that people in one racial category are inherently superior to people in one or more other categories Genocide: the systematic destruction of an identifiable population Stereotypes: generalizations used to define and judge all individuals who are classified in a particular racial category

The problem with race & racial ideology  Research shows that race is not a valid biological concept because external traits are not linked with patterns of internal differences.  Race is a social construction that is based on social definitions and the meanings that people give to physical traits.  Racial classification systems vary by culture and over time, and they are based on arbitrary distinctions related to continuous physical traits (see diagram).

Using critical theory to ask questions about racial classification systems  Whose classification systems are used?  Who uses them?  Why are some people so dedicated to using certain classification systems?  What are the consequences of usage?  What strategies do people use to minimize negative consequences?  How can the systems be challenged?  What occurs when systems change?

Snow white Midnight black Continuous traits = skin color, height, brain size, nose width, leg length, leg length ratio, # of fast-twitch muscle fibers, etc. Discrete traits = blood type, sickle cell trait, etc. Racial category lines are drawn on the basis of continuous traits. Therefore, they can be drawn anywhere and everywhere on this continuum! We could draw 2 or 2000 lines. Our decisions are social decisions, not decisions based on biology. Some people draw many; others draw few; some reject lines altogether. Racial categories: Drawing color lines in society Skin color continuum

Tiger Woods disrupts dominant racial ideology “I am CABLINASIAN” CA = Caucasian (father) BL = Black (father) IN = Indian (father) ASIAN = Asian (mother) Source: AP Photo/Damian Dovarganes)

“Race” in the United States “Race” is a primitive but powerful classification system that has been used worldwide. “Race” in the United States is unique because  It is based on a two-category classification system premised on the rule of hypo-descent or the “one-drop rule”  It was defined by white men to insure the “purity” of the “white race” and their absolute control of property  It persists in the face of evidence contradicting the popular notion of racial purity

Race, racial ideology, & sports Racial ideology encourages people to  “See” sport performances in “racialized” terms, i.e., in terms of skin color  Use whiteness as the taken-for-granted standard in sports  Explain the success or failure of people with dark skin in racial terms  Do research designed to “discover” racial difference

This statement is laughable, but it has been widely accepted when applied to dark- skinned athletes.

Searching for “jumping genes” in black bodies This search is misleading because  It is based on oversimplified ideas about genes and how they work.  It mistakenly assumes that jumping is a simple physical activity related to a single gene or interrelated set of genes.  It ignores that jumping is a cultural performance as well as a physical act.

The racially “natural athlete”? There is no evidence showing that skin color is related to physical traits that are essential for athletic excellence across sports or in any particular sport.

Research summary (Genetic factors and athletic performance) YES  Are there genetic differences between individuals? YES YES  Are genetic characteristics related to athletic excellence? YES PROBABLY NOT  Could one gene account for success across a range of different sports? PROBABLY NOT NO  Are skin color genes and physical performance genes systematically connected? NO (continued)

Research summary (continued) YES  Are physical development and the expression of skills in sports related to cultural definitions of skin color and race? YES YES  Do cultural ideas about skin color and race influence the interpretation of and meaning given to the movement and achievements of athletes? YES

Social origins of athletic excellence  A cultural emphasis on achievement in activities that have special cultural meaning  Resources to support widespread participation among young people  Opportunities to gain rewards through success  Access to those who can teach tactics and strategies

Traditional racial ideology used in sports The achievements of white athletes are based on: Character Culture Organization The achievements of black athletes are based on:  Biology  “Natural” abilities  Genetic heritage

A sociological hypothesis to explain the achievements of black male athletes

When I took this photo, the father told his son not to smile. For him, playing football was serious business that could provide a mobility avenue for his son and the entire family. Photo by Jay Coakley

A sociological hypothesis Racial ideology + discrimination + sport opportunities Beliefs about biological and cultural destiny + Motivation to develop skills OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENTS IN SPORTS

The power of racial ideology Black male students often have a difficult time shaking “athlete” identity labels that are based on prevailing racial ideology in the U.S.  Many people don’t “see” an honor student when they see a black male. Young people from all racial backgrounds may make choices influenced by racial ideology.  They may think in terms of “black sports” and “white sports.” In everyday life, racial ideology is integrally linked to ideas about gender and social class.  The black male body has been socially constructed in connection with white fears and fascination.

Racial ideology influences some—not all—white people to avoid sports in which black people have a record of excellence.

Race, gender, & social class intersect in sports through racial ideology (I) In Euro-American racial history there have been  Strong fears of the physical power and prowess of (oppressed) black men  Powerful anxieties about the sexual appetites, attributes, and capabilities of (angry) black men  Deep fascination with the movement of the black body THEREFORE, the black male body became a valuable entertainment commodity and black people saw it as a mobility asset.

Race, gender, & social class intersect in sports through racial ideology (II) In the U.S., black female athletes must  Closely monitor their presentation of self so they are not perceived by whites as “too black”  Tone down their toughness to appear amicable and nonthreatening If they don’t, they may be referred to as “... tough girls... nappy headed ho’s.”

Race, gender, & social class intersect in sports through racial ideology (III) In the U.S., the body of the black female has been sexualized and/or viewed as a source of nurturance  This has led to stereotypes of black women as oversexed on the one hand, and as “Aunt Jemima” on the other hand.  These stereotypes continue to be expressed in the 21 st century

When pro tennis player Caroline Wozniacki mimicked Serena Williams she revived a global legacy of racist beliefs about black female sexuality and what happened to Saartjie Baartman, caricatured in this 200 years old racist image. Serena Williams knew this history. (Source: © Andre Penner/ /AP/Corbis) (Source: City of Westminster Archives Centre )

Historical consequences of racial ideology for African Americans in sports  Desegregation of revenue-producing sports  Continued racial exclusion in “social” sports  Position stacking in team sports  Racialized interpretations of achievements  Management barriers for blacks  Skewed distribution of African Americans in U.S. colleges and universities

Sport participation among African Americans The facts show that  Prior to the 1950s, sports in the U.S. were racially segregated.  African Americans participate in a very limited range of sports.  African Americans are clearly underrepresented in most sports.  They’re not “taking over” sports, as some whites continue to believe.

In the face of racial segregation, blacks could earn money by turning sports into entertainment that reaffirmed the racist stereotypes of whites. There was cultural space for blacks to entertain whites as clowns, but not to play sports with whites. Source: American Memory Collection)

African Americans “tolerated” these stereotypes because they opened some doors for them to play sports and make some money in the process. The original Harlem Globetrotters were a classic example of this, as were the “Zulu Cannibal Giants”.

Sport participation among Native Americans  Native Americans comprise dozens of diverse cultural groups.  Traditional Native American sports combine physical activities with ritual and ceremony.  Native Americans often fear losing their culture when playing Euro-American sports.  Widely accepted racial and ethnic stereotypes about Native Americans have restricted their access to sport participation.

Identity theft in sports? Using stereotypes of Native Americans as a basis for team names, logos, & mascots is a form of bigotry and identity theft, regardless of the intentions of those who do it  Are there any conditions under which a group or organization could use the cultural and religious images of others for their own purposes in sports?  What if a school named its teams the Olympians and used the Olympic 5-ring logo as their logo?  What if a Native American high school team called itself the Slave Masters and used Thomas Jefferson as a mascot?

Pick your pennant. Only one is being used, and it has the most demeaning nickname If you want [your mascot] to be a savage—use your own picture.... How would you feel if the team was called the Washington Darkies? —Former Colorado senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell, the only Native American senator in U.S. history (Source: The National Conference, Minnesota-Dakotas Region )

Sport participation among Latinos Native-born and naturalized citizens  Participation patterns vary by national origin, heritage, and generation  Experiences include bridging cultural gaps and dealing with stereotypes related to Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans Latin Americans working as athletes in the U.S.  Long history of Latino players in U.S. sports  40% of players under contract in Major League Baseball Latinos  Cultural and social adjustment problems are numerous Undocumented workers and family members  Little knowledge; access to information is scarce  Sports are used strategically to share information with other workers about how to survive in the U.S.

Latinas today can now see athletes who look like them, but we know little about their experiences in sports and how they integrate sports into their lives Source: © DENNIS M. SABANGAN/epa/Corbis)

Sport participation among Asian Pacific Americans (APAs)  Cultural heritage and histories of APAs are diverse.  Heritage traced to at least 18 nations and dozens of cultures.  The sport participation patterns of APAs vary with their immigration histories.  People from Asia are seen by many Americans as “foreign” even if they are natural-born U.S. citizens in families that have been in the U.S. for many generations.  APAs have long histories of sport participation in U.S.  Some have used sports to challenge and discredit stereotypes, some to gain acceptance in schools.  Tensions may occur if APAs don’t embrace traditional U.S. sports.

Stereotypes about Chinese people were disrupted by Jeremy Lin as he excelled in the NBA. Source: © Song Qiong/Xinhua Press/Corbis)

Race, ethnicity, and sport: Global issues  Research on global soccer has found three primary expressions of racism Direct racism—fans insulting players with bigoted slurs Indirect racism—chants or banners promoting bigoted political agendas Racism on the field—negative comments made by and to athletes, coaches, referees  Racism has become a major problem in sports worldwide as global migration patterns bring diverse peoples into contact with each other

As European professional soccer has become more racially diverse, expressions of racism have become more common. Today there are programs designed to discourage racism. Success has been spotty.

As England tries to deal with expressions of racism and homophobia in sports, some venues have policies that formally ban them

Making sports inclusive is a major challenge, regardless of nation and culture. The Irish Football association in Northern Ireland has made concerted attempts to eliminate racism and related forms of bigotry from sports. Photo by Mike Collins

The dynamics of racial and ethnic relations in sports  Race and ethnicity remain significant in sports today  Today’s challenges are not the ones faced in the past  Racial and ethnic issues don’t disappear when desegregation occurs  The challenge of dealing with intergroup relations never disappears—it only changes in terms of the issues that must be confronted and resolved  Racial and ethnic diversity brings potential vitality and creativity to sports

The dynamics of racial and ethnic relations in sports There are three major challenges related to racial and ethnic relations in sports today: (1) eliminating racial and ethnic exclusion in sport participation (2) dealing with and managing racial and ethnic diversity by creating an inclusive culture on sport teams and in sport organizations (3) integrating positions of power in sport organizations

Eliminating racial and ethnic exclusion in sports (I) Certain sports have built-in incentives for eliminating racial segregation. 1. Team owners and management benefit when they don’t exclude talented players. 2. Racial ideologies and stereotypes are easy to suspend in the face of precise, objective performance data. 3. All team members benefit from the achievements of teammates, regardless of their race or ethnicity. (continued)

Eliminating racial and ethnic exclusion in sports (II) 4.Superior performance by a player does not mean he or she will be promoted to management 5.Team members are not required to socialize and be friends off the field to win games 6.Ethnic minority athletes always remain under the control of (white) team owners and management These incentives offset the threats often perceived by dominant group members when desegregation occurs; sports without these incentives remain segregated to some degree

After desegregation: Managing racial and ethnic diversity Racial and ethnic diversity creates management challenges related to  Social dynamics on teams  Social dynamics among spectators  Marketing athletes, teams, and leagues NOTE: The global recruitment of players insures that diversity issues will always exist in sports.

The films The Jackie Robinson Story and 42—The True Story of An American Legend showed that Branch Rickey, the Dodgers manager, and the team faced new challenges after desegregation. ( Source: American Memory Collection)

Jackie Robinson and others who have broken barriers in sports have been closely watched and judged by those who are privileged by prevailing definitions of skin color, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, and (dis)ability. Barrier breakers are under constant surveillance (ON TRIAL!) by those waiting to find a reason to attack them.

Integrating positions of power in sport organizations People seldom share power voluntarily  Even when sport participation is racially and ethnically mixed, power in sports is not readily shared.  The movement of minorities into coaching and administrative positions has been very slow.  Social and legal pressures are still needed before power is fully shared.

Most sport organizations are:  White-dominated  White-identified  White-centered Success by ethnic minorities requires living to standards set by whites and acting in ways that whites define as appropriate. To defy these standards is to risk being defined as deviant, arrogant, undisciplined— as a problem, as too “not-like-us” (whites).

Sports may bring people together, but this does not occur automatically, nor does it make race and ethnicity irrelevant in sports. Bringing people together doesn’t lead to positive outcomes without strategies based on an awareness of racial and ethnic relations. Photo by Jay Coakley

Recent changes As social conditions change, so do ideas and beliefs about race and the bodies of athletes  Most top boxers today are Latino, Eastern European, and South Asian  Africans are widely recruited by previously all-white men’s soccer clubs in Europe  White Americans are being replaced by young women from Russia at the top levels of professional tennis and from Korea in golf  Forty-five percent of players on Major League Baseball teams are Latin American and Asian  Twenty-eight percent of NBA players were born outside the United States Ideas about “race” and bodies vary over time and with changing circumstances

Change requires:  Regular and direct confrontation of racial and ethnic issues by people in positions of power  A new vocabulary for dealing with new forms of racial and ethnic diversity in our lives  Training sessions for management and players dealing with practical problems and issues, not just feelings