Language Structure Lecture 4: Adjectives and Adverbs – and the phrases that they head Helena Frännhag Spring 2013

OUTLINE ADJECTIVES Formal (notional and syntactic) features of adjectives Function of adjectives ADJECTIVE PHRASES Internal (functional and formal) structure of AdjPs Functions of AdjPs ADVERBS Formal (notional and syntactic) features of adverbs Function of adverbs ADVERBPHRASES Internal (functional and formal) structure of AdvPs Functions of AdvPs

ADJECTIVES From a formal point of view, adjectives can be roughly recognized from their (i) Notional features and (ii) Syntactic features

Notional features Adjectives typically denote properties, such as….

- evaluation (good, bad, brilliant…), - size (big, tiny, large…), - length (long, short, extended…), - texture (smooth, rough, sharp…), - temperature (cold, tepid, scorching…), - age (old, new, adult…), - shape (round, angular, square…) - colour (black, crimson, purple…)

However…. …also less propertylike meanings, such as - constituent matter ( plastic (bag), wooden (chair)…), - origin in space ( American (boy), domestic (waste)…), - origin in time ( Victorian (furniture), classical (literature)…), - purpose ( musical (instrument), athletic (equipment)…), - source of power ( electric (train), manual (labour…), etc.

Syntactic features (i) Position Adjectives may appear in - -prenominal position (i.e. before a noun), the concerned king - -postnominal position (i.e. after a noun) the king concerned - -predicative position (i.e. after a linking verb): the king is concerned

Syntactic features (ii) grading Adjectives can be graded (also referred to as comparison): the king is concerned this king is more concerned than that one this is the most concerned king

Syntactic features (iii) Modification Adjectives can be modified: a very concerned king an extremely nice man a highly gifted artist

However… …the syntactic criteria apply only to prototypical adjectives! Cf. adjectives such as solar, pedestrian and atomic

So… Adjectives may be pretty diverse – in terms of notional as well as syntactic characteristics. Adjectives may be pretty diverse – in terms of notional as well as syntactic characteristics. They do, however, have one thing in common…

Exceptions - auxiliaries (which function as auxiliaries), - subordinators (which function as subordinators), and - coordinators (which function as coordinators)

ADJECTIVE PHRASES - -Internal functional structure - -Internal formal structure - -Functions of AdjPs

The Functional Structure of AdjPs There may be three functional elements in an AdjP: - -Head - -Modifier - -Complement

Heads constitute the hub of the phrase, that which the phrase ’is about’: totally amazed by him Heads constitute the hub of the phrase, that which the phrase ’is about’: totally amazed by him Modifiers elaborate on a less important aspect of the meaning of the head (in AdjPs generally degree): totally amazed by him Complements elaborate on a crucial aspect of the meaning of the head: totally amazed by him

The Formal Structure of AdjPs Each function in the AdjP – head, modifier, and complement – is in turn performed by a certain FORM

The head function… …is performed by - an adjective ( totally amazed ), or - a participle ( beautifully written )

The modifier function… …is performed by - an AdvP ( very cool; much nicer; generally bigger), - a DP ( this big; no better), - a PP (dangerous in the extreme ; cordial to excess ), or - an NP ( a lot nicer, a little bit uncomfortable)

The complement function… …is performed by - a PP ( afraid of the dark, nice to me, good at English ), or - a subclause ( happy to help, glad that it was over )

Complement vs Modifier in the AdjP Not as clear as in NPs and VPs. However, generally, modification in NPs is to do with degree, whereas complementation is to do with anything else.

Functions of the AdjP AdjPs have three main functions: - modifier in NPs - predicative complement in VPs - supplement

AdjP as Modifier in NP Pre- or postmodifier: The rich king The present kings The kings present The king rich to excess

Two main reasons for postnominal position: (i) AdjPs with complements are too heavy in prenominal position: A man willing to share … *A willing to share man… (ii) AdjPs may have different meanings depending on position: (ii) AdjPs may have different meanings depending on position: The present king The king present

AdjP as Predicative Complement in a VP Subject predicative complement She is so nice These are ugly He’s never rude to anyone Object predicative complement they thought it horrible Julius made Valdemar very angry Hilding has cut his hair short

AdjP as Supplement Completely exhausted, I fell into bed; All red in his face, he marched off; She sank down on the sofa, pale from the shock

ADVERBS From a formal point of view, adverbs can be roughly identified from their (i) Notional features and (ii) Syntactic features

Notional Features Adverbs may denote a whole range of different meanings, the most common being - Time ( yesterday, now ) - Space ( here, inside ) - Manner ( beautifully, quickly ) - Degree ( very, extremely )

Syntactic Features Like prototypical adjectives, adverbs can be graded and modified: He runs more quickly/ most quickly He runs very quickly

ADVERB PHRASES - -Internal functional structure - -Internal formal structure - -Functions of AdvPs

The Functional Structure of AdvPs There may be three functional elements in an AdvP: - -Head - -Modifier - -Complement (only with certain adverbs derived from adjectives)

Heads constitute the hub of the phrase, that which the phrase ’is about’: very carefully Heads constitute the hub of the phrase, that which the phrase ’is about’: very carefully Modifiers elaborate on a less important aspect of the meaning of the head (in AdvPs generally degree): very carefully Complements elaborate on a crucial aspect of the meaning of the head: luckily for me

The Formal Structure of AdvPs Each function in the AdvP – head, modifier, and complement – is in turn performed by a certain FORM

The head function… …is always performed by an adverb luckily extremely carefully meticulously to the extreme

The modifier function… …is performed by - an AdvP ( scarcely audibly; very meticulously; remarkably carefully) - -a DP ( this carefully; any differently; no differently) - -a PP (badly in the extreme ; in the least bit productively) - -a NP ( a wee bit sarcastically; three metres down)

The complement function… …is performed by a PP luckily for me similarly to this This function only appears with phrases the head of which is derived from an adjective that may take a complement

Functions of the AdvP AdvPs have three main functions: - modifier in a range of phrases, - complement in PPs - adverbial in VPs

AdvP as Modifier - in AdjPs ( very nice; too hungry; almost never angry) - in AdvPs ( almost never; very rudely; pretty randomly) - in DPs ( almost all; hardly no; basically any) - in NPs (the room upstairs ; the class before ; the trees outside ) - in PPs ( basically on my own; immediately before class)

AdvP as Complement in PPs from here since then from below

AdvP as Adverbial in VPs ran very quickly arrived yesterday was eating outside

SUMMING UP ADJECTIVES Formal (notional and syntactic) features of adjectives Function of adjectives ADJECTIVE PHRASES Internal (functional and formal) structure of AdjPs Functions of AdjPs ADVERBS Formal (notional and syntactic) features of adverbs Function of adverbs ADVERBPHRASES Internal (functional and formal) structure of AdvPs Functions of AdvPs