The Development of Criminals: Life-Course Theories Chapter Sixteen The Development of Criminals: Life-Course Theories Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Introduction The age-crime curve The curve peaks at approx. 17 years of age The curve rises steeply between 7 and 17 years of age, and then declines The majority criminal offenders are teenagers Solving the riddle of crime causation now depended on figuring out what unique features of adolescence prompted youths to suddenly break the law Much cross-sectional research on this Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Introduction Longitudinal studies showed that involvement in crime during early adolescence was related to criminal conduct during late adolescence and during early adulthood Criminal careers Criminal career research: When does crime begin (onset), how long crime lasts (duration or persistence), how frequently crime is committed (incidence), and when crime stops (desistance)? Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Introduction There appears to be continuity and stability in antisocial behavior What happens during childhood is related to delinquency during adolescence. If the roots of crime lie in childhood, than most theories of delinquency and crime must be partially incorrect Some scholars called for a developmental criminology or life-course criminology The research in this area was empirical seeking predictors and pathways of crime Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Integrated Theories of Crime An integrated theory typically is an explanation of crime that attempts to merge the insights from two or more theories into a single framework The most noted integrated theories tend to combine elements from differential association/social learning theory, strain theory, and control/social bond theory Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Integrated Theories of Crime: Integrated Theorizing Integrated theories are not wed to any one perspective, and they are free to incorporate into a single model all factors that might be causes of criminal conduct Two shortcomings: Integrated theorizing assumes that criminological knowledge will grow more quickly by trying to bring theories together Integration theory can lead to sloppy theorizing Theories may have different assumptions, fundamental questions, and predictions Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Elliott and Colleagues’ Integrated Strain-Control Paradigm Draws on strain, control and social learning theories Suggests that factors from certain theories might be important at particular stages in life The theory posits that there may be more than one pathway to delinquency The model began by focusing on early socialization outcomes Key feature of childhood is whether children establish strong or weak bonds Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Elliott and Colleagues’ Integrated Strain-Control Paradigm Divided the social bond into two parts: Integration: The extent to which people are involved and attached to conventional groups and institutions Commitment: The individual’s personal attachment to conventional roles, groups, and institutions Those who have strong bonds during childhood, and maintain them through adolescence, have a low probability of engaging in delinquency Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Elliott and Colleagues’ Integrated Strain-Control Paradigm In the pathway to crime, weak bonds in childhood lead to participation to delinquent peer groups, which in turn results in stable criminal behavior However, events can occur in adolescence that create sufficient strain on a youth personally or on the social bond to cause the individual’s commitment to and integration into conventional society to attenuate Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Elliott and Colleagues’ Integrated Strain-Control Paradigm In the second pathway to crime, strong bonds initially insulate the child from conduct problems, but strain attenuates bonds in adolescence, allowing youths to participate in delinquent peer groups, and, in turn, to engage in stable criminal behavior A small proportion of youth might experience so much strain from blocked goals that they proceed directly into delinquency Others might lose their commitment to success goals—become alienated from conventional ideas of success—and seek some adventure or thrills Most often, youths whose bonds are strained and weakened become involved in delinquent peer groups Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Elliott and Colleagues’ Integrated Strain-Control Paradigm Elliot et al. showed empirical support for this theory But some questions, remain: It is not clear why social learning variables would have effects only during adolescence and only through delinquent peer groups Elliot et al. largely saw the family as a socializing agent that inculcates bonds and not, again, as a context in which social learning occurs Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Thornberry’s Interactional Theory Human behavior occurs in social interaction and can therefore be explained by models that focus on interactional processes Key causal conditions are not invariably stable over time, but rather may differ depending on whether the nature of the interaction between parents and children changes Delinquents not only are influenced by their social surroundings but also have an impact on others through their behavior Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Thornberry’s Interactional Theory During childhood, youngsters develop attachments to parents If children fail to develop strong attachments to parents, they are free to explore other behavioral options and encounter delinquent peers Thornberry integrates social control and social learning theories Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Thornberry’s Interactional Theory Two key theoretical insights: The variables in the model have reciprocal effects Interactional processes create behavioral trajectories which can result in cumulative disadvantage The effects of variables differ with a person’s stage in the life course This work alerted us to the fact that criminal behavior emerges in the context of the developmental process in which the person and environment interact with one another Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Thornberry’s Interactional Theory Thornberry sought to explain why onset into misconduct might occur at different stages in the life course: Those who manifest conduct problems in childhood The majority of youth begin offending between the ages 12-16 The late bloomers who wait until adulthood to begin offending Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Farrington’s ICAP Theory Integrated cognitive antisocial potential (ICAP) theory Integrates ideas from many other theories, including strain, control, learning, labeling, and rational choice approaches Key construct is “antisocial potential” (AP) Assumes that the translation from antisocial potential to antisocial behavior depends on cognitive (thinking and decision-making) processes that take into account opportunities and victims Proposed to explain offending by lower-class males, although there is no reason why its core construct might not have broader applicability Based off the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Farrington’s ICAP Theory Antisocial potential (or “AP”) is the propensity of people to engage in antisocial conduct, including crime Varies on a continuum from low to high Highly skewed, with some people having a little antisocial potential and a few having a lot Those with high AP tend to be life-course-persistent offenders who engage in many different kinds of crime Distinguishes between two kinds of antisocial potential: long-term (LT) and short-term (ST) Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Farrington’s ICAP Theory Individual differences theory Antisocial potential is a relatively stable trait that people carry with them across the life course Affects people long term Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Farrington’s ICAP Theory Five sources of long-term AP People are energized by a desire for material goods, status among intimates, excitement, and sexual satisfaction (strain theory) Antisocial models—found in certain social settings—foster AP (social learning) Focus is on poor parental child-rearing practices and on the failure to develop close emotional attachment bonds (control theory) Life events can have diverse effects; thus, marital separation might increase AP, whereas entering a good marriage could decrease AP (age-graded social bond) Impulsiveness Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Farrington’s ICAP Theory The ICAP model has a second component: a consideration of short-term antisocial potential Complete theory should address two types of variation Why one person might be more likely to offend than another person (between-individual variation) Each individual will tend to engage in certain behaviors more at one time than at another (within-individual variation) Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Farrington’s ICAP Theory Short-term AP varies within individuals according to short-term energizing factors such as being bored, angry, drunk, or frustrated, or being encouraged by male peers Routines can affect access to the opportunity to offend, including targets to victimize Final stage in the theory is the decision to engage in a specific crime in a specific location Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Farrington’s ICAP Theory Cognitive processes shape choices, including the individual’s perception of “the subjective benefits, costs, and probabilities of the different outcomes and stored behavioral repertoires or scripts Those with low AP will not break the law even if the benefits outweigh the costs and those with high AP may commit offenses when it is not rational Long-term antisocial potential might be increased if a criminal act proves rewarding Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Farrington’s ICAP Theory Three key components of ICAP The risk factors that lead some people to have a high potential to be antisocial over their life course The situational factors that cause antisocial potential to become salient and make committing a crime seem a viable choice The cognitive processes that either encourage or discourage the decision to offend Components may have feedback effects may vary at different stages in the life course, and may affect the onset, persistence, and desistance of crime differently Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Farrington’s ICAP Theory Important implications for crime prevention Crime can be reduced through: Early intervention programs that stop the development of long-term AP Crime prevention programs that diminish situational motivations and opportunities to offend Rehabilitation programs that seek to change both AP and how it affects thinking about crime Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Integrated Theories: Policy Implications The policy implications of integrated theories would be largely consistent with social learning, control, and strain theories Favor interventions that strengthen families and parent–child attachments, increase school commitment, and foster prosocial peer group interactions However, there is the tendency of integrated theorists to focus on childhood and on development into crime Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Life-Course Criminology: Continuity and Change Aside from continuity, scholars observed that the behavior of offending can change or experience discontinuity A key theoretical issue in life-course criminology is explaining both continuity and change in offending Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Life-Course Criminology: Continuity and Change Four types of life-course theories (See Table 15.1): Theories arguing that there is only continuity in offending Theories stating that offending is marked by either continuity or change Theories contending that offending is marked by continuity and change Theories that focus chiefly on change Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Life-Course Criminology: Continuity and Change Controversy also concerning whether continuity and/or change in offending is part of a developmental process Does it occur in predictable stages (Moffitt) or is it unpredictable (Sampson and Laub) Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Criminology in Crisis: Gottfredson and Hirschi Revisited Gottfredson and Hirschi argue children who manifest conduct problems during childhood are the same ones who manifest delinquency during their teens The major cause of low self-control appears to be ineffective childrearing In short, Gottfredson and Hirschi proposed a theory of continuity or stability in offending with differences in self-control the main determinant of stability in waywardness from childhood to adulthood Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Criminology in Crisis: Gottfredson and Hirschi Revisited Stability is the result of persistent heterogeneity A stable underlying individual differences that people carry with them across situations at any one time and across their life courses Opposite of state dependence which sees crime as evoking certain reactions, changing the offender, or changing a life situation At issue, however, is whether low self-control is a key to the individual difference that accounts for continuity in misconduct The theory’s simplicity seems to ignore the reality that other factors are involved in causing continuity in offending Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Criminology in Crisis: Gottfredson and Hirschi Revisited Gottfredson and Hirschi allow for intra-individual change—that is, change that occurs within an individual over time. By contrast, they argue for stability in interindividual differences in self-control and participating in offending and other deviant behavior Once levels of self-control are set in childhood, a person with low self-control will always have less self-control across the entire life course Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Patterson’s Social Interactional Developmental Model: Early-Onset Delinquency Antisocial behavior seems to be a developmental trait that begins early in life and often continues into adolescence and adulthood A key to understanding this development is that it is “social-interactional” Children and their environment are in constant interchange Linked the start of antisocial misconduct to dysfunctional families Coercion is a way of life and often positively rewarded As antisocial children move outside the home, they manifest child conduct problems Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Patterson’s Social Interactional Developmental Model: Early-Onset Delinquency Three factors disrupt family management practices: Parents who are antisocial often employ ineffective discipline with their own children Social disadvantage seems to be related to more physical and authoritarian parenting styles When families experience stress, effective parental management of children may be disrupted Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Patterson and Yoerger: Late-Onset Delinquency Proposed a developmental model for late-onset delinquency using the marginality hypothesis For the late-onset group, the key causal mechanism is a deviant peer group Late-onset delinquents are less likely to persist and more likely to desist from serious offending Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Patterson: Intervening with Families Argued that the solution to the problem of delinquency lies in early intervention with dysfunctional families Oregon Social Learning Center with parent management training programs Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Moffitt’s Life-Course Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory Argued that offending is marked by either continuity or change Antisocial behavior during childhood and shows continuity in misconduct into and beyond adolescence is related to life-course persistent offenders (LCP) 5-10% of the male population Adolescent limited offenders (AL) have no antisocial tendencies during childhood, deviate during adolescence, and desist as they reach adulthood Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Moffitt’s Life-Course Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory Presents a developmental theory in which, while growing up, virtually all youths take one pathway or the other through adolescence and into adulthood The LCPs who are the high-rate, chronic offenders marked by neuropsychological deficits The ALs who move in and out of crime without neuropsychological deficits Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Moffitt’s Life-Course Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory: LCP Antisocial Behavior Continuity is the hallmark of LCP offenders Antisocial behavior at any one stage of development is a reflection of contemporary continuity These offenders have neuropsychological deficits Affecting especially verbal development and executive functioning Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Moffitt’s Life-Course Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory: LCP Antisocial Behavior Parents are likely to share common traits with their offspring and are likely to reside in adverse neighborhoods Use disciplinary methods that intensify the difficult children’s initial problem behaviors and that foster weak parent–child bonds The stability of antisocial behavior also is fundamentally affected by contemporary continuity and cumulative continuity Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Moffitt’s Life-Course Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory: LCP Antisocial Behavior Cumulative continuity is fostered by two considerations: LCPs have a restricted behavioral repertoire They become ensnared by consequences of antisocial behavior Those who persist in offending into adulthood experience unsavory outcomes Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Moffitt’s Life-Course Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory: AL Antisocial Behavior The clues to AL behavior are to be found in the unique features of adolescent development Adolescents suffer from a maturity gap The main function of antisocial acts for those facing the maturity gap is that they demonstrate autonomy Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Moffitt’s Life-Course Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory: AL Antisocial Behavior Adolescent antisocial misconduct is motivated by the maturity gap and is reinforcing by the reactions it evokes Antisocial conduct is learned through a process of social mimicking The critical sources of delinquent modeling are the LCPs Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Moffitt’s Life-Course Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory: AL Antisocial Behavior The vast majority of ALs do not persist in their offending Because ALs are psychologically healthy, as they move into adulthood, they experience waning motivation and are responsive to shifting contingencies However, some can also become ensnared (e.g., pregnancy, incarceration, etc.) Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Moffitt’s Life-Course Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory: Assessment Two main criticisms: The question arises as to whether offenders can be divided neatly into two groups Some scholars would argue that LCPs and ALs do not really exist but rather are invented when scholars take a distribution of offenders and draw artificial cutoff points in their data Moffitt has presented evidence supporting her theory Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Sampson and Laub: Social Bond Theory Revisited Indicated that social bond theory can help to organize our understanding of continuity and change in offending across the entire life course Proposed a theory of age-graded informal social control Social capital is the capital or resources produced by the quality of relationships between people As bonds strengthen, social capital increases Makes crime too costly to commit Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Sampson and Laub: Social Bond Theory Revisited Argued that offending is marked by both continuity and change across time They denied that continuity characterizes a distinct set of offenders and that change characterizes a second distinct set of offenders Ten years later, they revised their theory Expanded their analysis of the process of desistance suggesting that stopping crime was the result of the convergence of several factors and of human agency Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Sampson and Laub: Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control Individuals and social control processes exist within a structural context, itself shaped by larger historical and macro-level forces During the first stages of life, the most salient social control process is found in the family There is a strong continuity in antisocial behavior running from childhood through adulthood across a variety of life domains Cumulative continuity Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Sampson and Laub: Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control If meaningful social bonds are established during adulthood, they can function as a turning point that leads offenders into conformity Strong social bonds underlie change Stressed the importance of informal social ties and bonds to society at all ages across the life course Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Assessing Sampson and Laub The Glueck’s study of 500 delinquent and 500 non-delinquent boys Sampson and Laub used the Glueck’s data to put their theory on the line Sampson and Laub showed that family social control mediates the effects of both structural and individual traits on delinquency and that quality social bonds during adulthood can divert persistent offenders away from crime Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Assessing Sampson and Laub Two potential challenges to this theory: By embracing social bond theory, Sampson and Laub attributed the crime-reducing effects of quality family life during childhood and of adult conventional relationships to social control Could be differential association Sampson and Laub’s perspective may be locked in continuing competition with self-control theory Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Revising the Age-Graded Theory of Crime Shared Beginnings, Divergent Lives (Sampson and Laub, 2003) extended the Glueck’s data set by studying the original data set until they reached the age 70 Two key findings: It appears that desistance from crime is virtually universal It is difficult to predict when desistance will occur Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Revising the Age-Graded Theory of Crime Directly challenges Moffitt’s views: LCPs do not persist in their offending forever Desistance is not part of a neatly unfolding developmental sequence Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Revising the Age-Graded Theory of Crime Five aspects to the process of desistance: Structural turning points set the stage for change These structural events create social bonds that increase the informal controls over offenders As offenders move into marriages and jobs, their daily routine activities change to structured and filled with prosocial responsibilities This changed, prosocial lifestyle creates desistance by default The desistance process Sampson and Laub describe constrains, but does not full determine the choices offenders make Individuals still exercise human agency Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Rethinking Crime: Cognitive Theories of Desistance Focus on why individuals are, or are not, trapped on a pathway to crime The theoretical task is to explain how the way offenders conceptualize their identities and life circumstances facilitates either their continued criminal involvement or their desistance from a life in crime Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Maruna’s Theory of Redemption Scripts Maruna was interested in why some offenders had desisted from crime whereas others had not Desisters and persisters differed in their cognitive understanding of their lives in crime Condemnation script: The persistent offender described themselves as doomed to deviance Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Maruna’s Theory of Redemption Scripts Redemption scripts: For desisters is the assertion that their previous criminality was not part of who they really are deep down The past woes help to make them a stronger person Offenders who desist experience a fundamental qualitative cognitive transformation that sustains them in the face of dire circumstances Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Giordano’s et al.’s Theory of Cognitive Transformation Giordano et al. explanation of desistance from crime Offenders are intentional and reflective The theory departs from Laub and Sampson in two ways: Rather than conceptualizing marriage and employment as turning points, they use the construct of hooks for change see agency as manifesting itself in a “cognitive transformation” that involves four cognitive shifts Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Giordano’s et al.’s Theory of Cognitive Transformation Four cognitive shifts: For change to transpire, the offender must first develop a general cognitive openness to change Once this cognitive shift has taken place, offenders must interpret the specific potential hooks for change that they encounter This cognitive transformation involves attempts by offenders to envision and begin to fashion an appealing and conventional replacement self that can supplant the marginal one that must be left behind Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Giordano’s et al.’s Theory of Cognitive Transformation Four cognitive shifts: The desistance process is relatively complete when the actor no liner sees these same behaviors as positive, viable, or even personally relevant Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications The most effective way of preventing crime is through early intervention programs Parent training Improving the cognitive development of children Reversing early manifestations of conduct problems Goal is to decrease the risk factors for the onset of offending and increase protective factors that foster resilience in the face of criminogenic risks “Prenatal and Early Childhood Nurse Home Visitation Program” Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications Many of these theorists argue that incarceration only further ensnares offenders in a criminal trajectory Much public support for early intervention Evidence that early intervention works Evidence that early intervention is cost-effective Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications Beyond early intervention, life-course research would suggest the need to consider strategies for those who are not saved as youngsters but persist in the offending into adulthood Reentry programs could diminish the attenuation of social bonds Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications Correctional interventions based on life-course research have occurred Offender change can be planned—done purposively through a well-designed program—or naturalistic— done outside treatment programs as offenders make choices in how to live their lives in the real world Life-course scholars study naturalistic change when they focus on desistance The key insight scholars have made is that some mechanisms that bring about naturalistic change might be incorporated into correctional programs to bring about planned change Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications “Creative” corrections—seeks to motivate offenders to build on existing strengths or to add strengths that make living a “good life” possible Fostering an identity transformation that makes envisioning change possible Helping offenders to assume social roles that allow them to meet core human needs in a positive rather than in a destructive way Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications Desistance-based rehabilitation programs suffer from two limitations Advocates have not generated a substantial body of experimental evidence demonstrating that “creative” programs emphasizing strengths are effective Advocates have felt the need to attack the risk- need-responsivity (RNR) model for emphasizing offender deficits Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Conclusion Criminology is filled with an array of competing theoretical paradigms Part of this richness in theorizing stems from attempts to revitalize old models in new ways, to integrate traditional approaches into fresh perspectives, and to elaborate ideas that heretofore were underdeveloped within an existing perspective Part from truly fresh ideas Part from scholars from different disciplines with different ideologies Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications

Conclusion Allegiances to contemporary theories will not be a random event; rather, they will continue to be shaped by people’s social experiences and corresponding views of the world Rapid social changes, such as a serious economic downturn that prompts social protest, could coalesce in such a way as to once again nourish certain theories more than others Ideas about crime—or what we call theories—are a product of society that develop in a particular context and then have their consequences for social policy Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications