Chapter 8 *AP is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product. Motivation and Emotions

Unit 8A: Motivation

Unit Overview Motivational Concepts Hunger Sexual Motivation The Need to Belong Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.

Introduction Motivation – physical and psychological factors that cause us to act in a certain way.Motivation

Motivational Concepts There are 4 general theories about motivation: 1. Instinct 2. Drive Reduction 3. Hierarchy of Needs 4. Optimum Arousal

Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology InstinctInstinct (fixed pattern) Instincts in animals Instincts in humans

Lion in fixed aggressive pattern: open mouth, stares, shows fangs

Drives and Incentives Drive-reduction theory –HomeostasisHomeostasis –Need –Drive –Drive reduction

Drives and Incentives “Drive Reduction Theory” Incentive –Positive and negative

Positive incentive…smell of fresh baked cookies!!!

Negative…someone we fear….such as Ted Bundy

Optimum Arousal Arousal –Optimum level of arousal

A Hierarchy of Motives Maslow’s hierarchy of needshierarchy of needs –Variations in the hierarchy

A Hierarchy of Motives

Hunger

3 Factors of Hunger 1. Biological – changes in blood chemistry, signals from the digestive organs…providing feedback to the brain

2. Psychosocial factors Learned associations, pressures to be thin, depression, low self-esteem

3. Genetic Factors Inherited instructions found in genes; genetics determine number of fat cells or metabolism

Biology of Hunger Peripheral Cues 1.Stomach: secrets hormone “ghrelin”; carries hunger signals to hypothalamus (hunger regulator); when full, the stretch receptors send “full” signal 2. Liver: monitors glucose – when levels fall liver sends hunger signals to hypothalamus 3. Intestines: secrete ghrelin too which carries hunger signals to hypothalamus, increasing appetite – Also secretes PYY, which carries “full” signals – Also secretes CCK – signals to inhibit eating

Biology peripheral cues continued 4. Fat Cells: secrete hormone called leptin which acts on the hypothalamus; if levels fall, appetite increases – This hormone helps maintain a constant level of body fat

Biology and hunger……… Central Cues: 1.Hypothalamus – group of cells that are involved in motivation  Regulate thirst, sex, sleep, emotional intensity, hunger 2.Lateral hypothalamus: the brain cells that receive “hunger signals” (increase appetite 3. Ventromedial hypothalamus – group of cells that receive “full signals” from digestive organs

The Physiology of Hunger Contractions of the stomach –Washburn concluded that stomach contractions accompany our feelings of hunger….but they are not the only source of hunger

The Physiology of Hunger Body Chemistry and the Brain Appetite hormones –Ghrelin – stomach, “I’m hungry” –Obestatin - stomach, “I’m full” –PYY - digestive track, “I’m not hungry” –Leptin - fat cells, “decreases hunger” Set point Basal metabolic rate

The Psychology of Hunger Eating Disorders Eating disorders –Anorexia nervosaAnorexia nervosa –Bulimia nervosaBulimia nervosa –Binge-eating disorderBinge-eating disorder

Level of Analysis for Our Hunger Motivation

Obesity and Weight Control Historical explanations for obesity Obesity –Definition –Statistics –Obesity and life expectancy

Obesity

Obesity and Weight Control The Social Effects of Obesity Social effects of obesity Weight discrimination Psychological effects of obesity

Weight Discrimination

Obesity and Weight Control The Physiology of Obesity Fat Cells

Obesity and Weight Control The Physiology of Obesity Set point – “weight thermostate Metabolism – energy expenditure (burn calories)

Obesity and Weight Control The Physiology of Obesity The genetic factor The food and activity factor –Sleep loss –Social influence –Food consumption and activity level

Obesity and Weight Control Losing Weight Realistic and moderate goals Success stories Attitudinal changes

Sexual Motivation

Masters and Johnson

The Physiology of Sex The Sexual Response Cycle Sexual response cycle –Excitement phase –Plateau phase –Orgasm –Resolution phase Refractory periodRefractory period

Excitatory and Plateau Phases Excitatory: Genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes erect, clitoris swells, respiration and heart rate increases. Plateau phase: Respiration and heart rate continue at an elevated level, genitals secrete fluids in preparation for orgasm.

Orgasm and Resolution Phases Orgasm: Rhythmic genital contractions that may help conception. Respiration and heart rate increase further, males ejaculate (there is evidence of female ejaculation as well), often accompanied by a pleasurable euphoria. Resolution phase: Respiration and heart rate return to normal resting states. Men experience a refractory period- a time period that must elapse before another orgasm. Women do not have a similar refractory period and can repeat the cycle immediately.

The Physiology of Sex Hormones and Sexual Behavior Effects of hormones –Development of sexual characteristics –Activate sexual behavior Estrogen Testosterone

The Psychology of Sex External stimuli Imagined stimuli –Dreams –Sexual fantasies

Levels of Analysis for Sexual Motivation

Adolescent Sexuality Teen Pregnancy Ignorance Minimal communication about birth control Guilt related to sexual activity Alcohol use Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity

Adolescent Sexuality Sexually Transmitted Infections Statistics of STIs Teen abstinence –High intelligence –Religious engagement –Father presence –Participation in service learning programs –xxx

Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation –Homosexual orientation –Heterosexual orientation Sexual orientation statistics

Sexual Orientation Origins of Sexual Orientation Origins of sexual orientation studies –Fraternal birth order effect Same-sex attraction in animals The brain and sexual orientation Genes and sexual orientation Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation

The Need to Belong

The Need to Belong Need to AFFILIATE Aiding survival Wanting to belong Sustaining relationships The pain of ostracism –ostracism

The End

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Definition Slides

Motivation = a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Instinct = a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

Drive-reduction Theory = the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

Homeostasis = a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

Incentive = a positive or negative environment stimulus that motivates behavior

Hierarchy of Needs = Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

Glucose = the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

Set Point = the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

Basal Metabolic Rate = the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

Anorexia Nervosa = an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.

Bulimia Nervosa = an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high- calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

Binge-eating Disorder = significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa.

Sexual Response Cycle = the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson – excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Refractory Period = a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

Estrogens = sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amount by females than males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.

Testosterone = the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

Sexual Orientation = an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation).