The Sophists PHILOSOPHER-LAWYERS FOR HIRE

The beginning of Athenian democracy  In 508 BC, the Athenian noble Kleisthenes “joined the people to his followers” to overthrow the last of a long series of tyrants.  He secured the support of the Assembly of citizens and re-organized the government of the city along neighborhood lines rather than aristocrat-dominated extended families.  Its slogan was isonomia, equality under the law.

The Wars against Persia  The Athenian democracy developed at the same time that Athens led a great alliance of Greek cities against the Persian Empire. (They destroyed Miletus in 494 BC.)  The Athenians and Spartans defeated the Persian armies at Marathon (490 BC ), Thermopylae (480 BC ), Salamis (480 BC ), and Plataea (479 BC ). Athens had to be rebuilt.  In 478 BC, the Athenians formed the Delian League, “to compensate themselves for their losses by ravaging the territories of the king of Persia.” This became an open- ended quota of 1/60 th of the wealth of other Greeks.

Athens in the 5 th Century BC

Athens in the 5 th Century  Population of citizens was 25,000-50,000  Population of non-citizen residents (metics) = ~25,000  Population of slaves = ~75, ,000  Total (adding free women & children) = ~300, ,000 (Comparable to Pasadena and Glendale together)

The Democracy  The Assembly (ekklesia) was theoretically open to all citizens. In practice, attendance was at most 5,000-6,000. It met at least four times a year, plus emergencies.  The Council (boule) of 500 set items for Assembly debates. They were chosen by lot from volunteers and served for a year. They could not make policy.  The 50 Executives (prutaneis) were paid and lived on 24 hour call. They served for a month and were chosen by lot.

The Democracy  Other offices included the ancient archons (judges of city laws and rituals, eventually chosen by lot), the elected strategoi (generals), city treasurers, criminal justices, street cleaners, market inspectors, officers of the Mint, secretaries and archivists, and ambassadors. Other than the generals, treasurers, and ambassadors (elected by the Assembly), these were chosen by lottery.  Juries (which were also judges) were chosen by lot and paid.  Pericles was the dominant politician and strategos from the late 460s until his death in 429 BC

The Peloponnesian Wars ( , BC )  In the competitive Greek world, Athens soon became resented by other Greek city-states. Sparta was the leader of the anti-Athenian cities (the Peloponnesian League).  From 413, the war turned against Athens, leading to a brief overthrow of the democracy in 411 (involving both Antiphon and Alcibiades) and then total defeat by the Spartans in , and another brief overthrow of the democracy in (involving Critias ).

The Sophists  So in Athens it was essential to be able to win friends and influence people through public speaking. Education theoretically was the way for anyone to advance themselves, but in practice was a tool for the rich to maintain their position.  This demand created the sophists (literally, wise men or experts). They were private tutors, speech-writers, PR men, philosophers, and lawyers rolled into one: higher education for high prices. They came from all over Greece.  Their reputation was similar to the reputation lawyers and publicity agents have for us: tricksters, liars, self-promoters.

The Sophists  Most of our knowledge of the sophists comes from biased sources—their enemies, such as Plato.  They wrote studies of rhetoric, ethics, psychology, and metaphysics. But their focus was on success or excellence (arete), so their interest in the human world dominated.  They speculated about the origins of society and morals, and mostly concluded that right and wrong were human inventions for safety and convenience. Virtue/excellence is whatever gets me what I want.

Phusis vs. nomos (Nature vs. nurture)  Phusis was gradually used to describe human nature or individual nature (what is native without training).  Nomos is no longer divine (cf. Heraclitus fr. 26). It becomes artificial, mere custom or training.  The sophists transposed the appearance/reality distinction to the convention/nature opposition.

Protagoras of Abdera (c BC )  Protagoras was from the same city as Democritus, and may have been influenced by atomism.  But whereas Democritus was troubled by the “bastard” knowledge of the senses detaching us from reality, Protagoras cheerfully dissolved the problem by rejecting the idea of objective reality. He is the first notable relativist.  “Man is the measure of all things” (fr. 1). Notice the implied reference to Parmenides.

Protagoras’ Argument for Relativism 1.If one person sees something as X, and another person sees the same thing as not-X, then neither X nor not-X is in the thing itself. 2.Different people often see something as X while other people see the same thing as not-X. 3.So, qualities are not objective.

Gorgias of Leontini ( c BC )  The most famous of all the rhetoricians.  From Leontini in Sicily, so he knew of the Eleatics.  Boasted of his ability to control audiences.  In “On Nothing,” he concludes that (1) nothing is, (2) if anything is, it can’t be known, and (3) if anything could be known, it couldn’t be communicated.

Antiphon of Athens ( c BC )  One of the leaders of the oligarchic overthrow of the democracy in 411.  Criticized law and traditional justice as restraints on what is natural, denying our natural instincts and self- interest  Caring about the interests of others or the common good are artificial conventions

The Sophists against philosophy  If we can argue both sides of any issue, then argument isn’t getting us to truth, it’s just useful for persuasion (Protagoras, fr. 4).  But if truth depends on the person, then persuading people is the greatest power (Gorgias, Encomium).  The arguments of the philosophers are pointless (Gorgias, On Nothing).  Morality is just more words to control people. True nature is getting what you want, winning (Antiphon).