Personality DevelopmentRelationships: Family in Middle AgeWork and Leisure

Personality Development

How does personality development occur in middle adulthood?

Two Perspectives on Adult Personality Development Normative-crisis versus life events Normative crisis model Views personality development in terms of fairly universal stages, tied to a sequence of age-related crises Life events model Suggests that particular events, rather than age per se, determine how personality develops

Erikson’s Stage of Generativity Versus Stagnation Generativity versus stagnation –People consider their contributions to family, community, work, and society –Generativity: Looking beyond oneself to continuation of one's life through others –Stagnation: Focusing on the triviality of their life

Erikson’s Stage of Generativity Versus Stagnation Erikson –Critics argue that normative-crisis models are outdated –Model came from time when gender roles were more rigid

Building on Erikson’s Views: Vaillant Valliant Keeping meaning versus rigidity Adults seek to extract meaning from their lives by accepting strengths and weaknesses of others Those who are rigid become increasingly isolated from others

Building on Erikson’s Views: Gould Gould Adults pass through series of seven age- related stages People in late 30s and early 40s begin to feel sense of urgency in attaining life’s goals Descriptions not research supported

Gould’s Transformations in Adult Development

Building on Erikson’s Views: Levinson Levinson Seasons of life theory Most people are susceptible to fairly profound midlife crisis Late 30s Early 40s Between 40 and 45

Midlife Crisis Stage of uncertainty and indecision brought about by realization that life is finite Gender differences Despite widespread acceptance, evidence for midlife crisis does not exist

The Midlife Crisis: Reality or Myth? For majority of people, transition is smooth and rewarding Many middle-aged people find their careers have blossomed They feel younger than they actually are

Middle age: In some cultures it doesn’t exist Model of aging of Oriyan women High caste Hindu women Life course based on nature of one’s social responsibility, family management issues, and moral sense at given time  not on basis of chronological age Domestic work is highly respected and valued

Stability Versus Change in Personality Does personality change or remains stable over course of development? Erikson and Levinson: Substantial change Costa and McCrae: Stability in traits across development

The Stability of Personality According to Paul Costa and Robert McCrae, basic personality traits such as neuroticism, extroversion, and openness are stable and consistent throughout adulthood. Source: Based on Costa et al., 1989, p. 148.

Stability and Change in the Big Five Personality Traits Big Five traits are relatively stable past age 30 with some variations in specific traits Neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience decline somewhat from early adulthood through middle adulthood Agreeableness and conscientiousness increase to a degree Findings are consistent across cultures

What makes you happy?

If You’re Happy and You Know It… Sense of subjective well-being or general happiness remains stable over life span Most people have a general “set point” for happiness Regardless of where they stand economically, residents of countries across the world have similar levels of happiness

In normative-crisis models, people pass through age-related stages of development; life events models focus on how people change in response to varying life events. Levinson argues that the transition to middle age can lead to a midlife crisis, but there is little evidence for this in the majority of people.

Broad, basic personality characteristics are relatively stable. Specific aspects of personality do seem to change in response to life events.

According to ______________ models, researchers understand personality development as the product of universal stages tied to age-related crises. a. goodness of fit b. normative-crisis c. life events d. subjective well-being

According to the ______________ model, individuals at different ages can experience the same emotional and personality changes because they have shared common occurrences in their lives. a. normative-crisis b. psychosexual c. life events d. self-understanding

According to Roger Gould (1978, 1980) people in their late 30s and early 40s feel a sense of urgency in terms of reaching their life because they realize their lives are limited. True False

How do you think the midlife transition is different for a middle-aged person whose child has just entered adolescence versus a middle-aged person who has just become a parent for the first time?

Relationships: Family in Middle Age

Middle Age Marriages Most frequent pattern of marital satisfaction is U- shaped Marital satisfaction begins to decline after marriage and falls to its lowest point following the birth of children Marital satisfaction begins to grow after children leave adolescence and reaches its highest point when kids leave home

The Phases of Marital Satisfaction For many couples, marital satisfaction falls and rises in a U-shaped configuration. It begins to decline after the birth of children but increases when the youngest child leaves home and eventually returns to a level of satisfaction similar to that at the start of marriage. Why do you hink this pattern of satisfaction occurs? Source: Based on Rollins & Cannon, 1974.

What do the newer findings suggest? Unhappy marriages tend to terminate so earlier cross-sectional methods not representative Long-married couples were older and were married during times when marriage was more highly valued Different couples have different levels of marital satisfaction even at outset

And so… Why might couples who have children tend to experience better marital satisfaction later in life than do childless couples? Given these findings, how might you advise a newlywed couple on what to expect as their years of marriage progress?

Good Marriages Many couples state that their spouse is their "best friend“ They also view marriage as a long-term commitment They believe their spouse has grown more interesting over the years Most feel their sex lives (although frequency goes down) are satisfying

Proven Coping Mechanisms in Successful Marriages Holding realistic expectations Focusing on the positive Compromising Avoiding suffering in silence

Why Marriages Unravel People spend less time together in middle adulthood More concern over personal happiness Divorce is more socially acceptable Women feel less dependent on husbands Romantic, passionate feelings may fade over time Infidelity

Rising Divorces in Middle Adulthood Both the divorce rate and the number of people that experience divorce in those 50 years and above have risen significantly, and the increases are projected to continue in the future. Source: Brown & Lin, 2012, Figure 1.

Marriage Gradient Marriage gradient pushes men to marry younger women Older women are victims of the harsh societal standards regarding physical attractiveness A major reason many remarry is that being divorced carries a stigma

Remarriage Older couples are more mature and realistic Roles are more flexible Couple looks at marriage less romantically and is more cautious Divorce rate is higher for second marriages More stress, especially with blended families Once divorce is experienced, it is easier to walk away a second time Around three-quarters of people who divorce remarry again, usually within two to five years.

Family Evolutions: From Full House to Empty Nest Empty nest syndrome When parents experience feelings of unhappiness, worry, loneliness, and depression resulting from their children's departure from home More myth than reality

When children leave home Parents can work harder More time alone House stays cleaner Phone doesn't ring as often

Boomerang Children: Refilling the Empty Nest Young adults who come back to live in the homes of their middle-aged parents –Men are more likely to do it than women –Parents tend to give sons more freedom than daughters –Unable to find a job –Difficulty making ends meet –About one-third of young adults 25 to 34 live with parents; higher in some European countries

More Boomerang Children, Enjoying it Less The percentage of those saying that living with their parents at this stage of life has been bad, good, or no different in terms of their relationship. Source: Pew Research Center, 2012.

Sandwich Generation Fulfill needs of both their children and their aging parents Couples are marrying and having children later Parents are living longer

Caring for Aging Parents Care for aging parents can be psychologically tricky Significant degree of role reversal Range of care varies Financial Managing household Providing direct care Influenced by cultural norms and expectations

Becoming a Grandparent: Who, Me? InvolvedCompanionateRemote

Are all grannies the same? Marked gender differences in ways people enjoy grandparenthood Grandmothers are more interested and experience greater satisfaction than grandfathers African American grandparents are more apt to be involved

Family Violence: The Hidden Epidemic Prevalence Characteristics of abuser and abused Parents who abuse their own spouses and children were often victims of abuse themselves as children, reflecting a cycle of violence.

Factors Increasing Likelihood of Abuse Low SES Growing up in a violent home Families with more children have more violence Single parent families with lots of stress

Stages of Marital Abuse (Walker) –Tension-building stage: a batterer becomes upset and shows dissatisfaction initially through verbal abuse –Acute battering incident: the physical abuse actually occurs –Loving contrition stage: the husband feels remorse and apologizes for his actions

Cycle of Violence Hypothesis Abuse and neglect of children leads them to be predisposed to abusiveness as adults About one-third of people who were abused or neglected as children abuse their own children Two-thirds of abusers were not abused as children

Spousal Abuse and Society Cultural correlates Status Low status = Easy targets High status = Threat to husbands

Spousal Abuse and Society Others cultures have traditions in which violence is regarded as acceptable Some experts suggest traditional power structure under which women and men function is root cause of abuse

Dealing with Spousal Abuse Teach both wives and husbands that physical violence is NEVER acceptable Call the police Understand that the remorse shown by a spouse, no matter how heartfelt, may have no bearing on the possibility of future violence If you are the victim of abuse, seek a safe haven If you feel in danger from an abusive partner, seek a restraining order Call the National Domestic Violence Hotline at for immediate advice.

Marital satisfaction rises and falls over the course of marriage, generally following a U- shaped configuration over the years. Marital satisfaction tends to be highest when both partners feel that their spouse is “their best friend,” when they like their spouses as people, when they agree on aims and goals, and when they view marriage as a long-term commitment. In happy marriages, most people also feel that their spouses have grown more interesting over the years.

There are many reasons why marriages end in divorce, including lack of satisfaction, less time spent together, and infidelity. Divorce may increase happiness, and the process of divorce is more socially acceptable.

Family changes in middle adulthood include the departure of children. In recent years, the phenomenon of “boomerang children” has emerged. Middle-aged adults often have increasing responsibilities for their aging parents.

Abuse is more likely to occur in large families who are experiencing financial strain and for whom verbal aggression is common. Marital violence tends to pass through three stages: tension building, an acute battering incident, and loving contrition. Adults who experienced family violence as children are also more likely to be violent themselves. Marital violence tends to pass through three stages: tension building, an acute battering incident, and loving contrition.

According to the U-shaped curve illustrating the changes in marital satisfaction, typically marriage satisfaction tends to decrease after marriage, reach its lowest point after the birth of children, and then: a. take a sharper dip that relates to more marriages ending in divorce. b. slowly begin to increase again, eventually returning to the same level it was before marriage. c. begin a drastic increase to levels surpassing premarriage levels of satisfaction. d. steadily decrease until children leave the house.

Both men and women who divorce during midlife are likely to enter new relationships, but typically do not remarry. True False

Couples who in middle adulthood need to take care of their aging parents and their children are often referred to by psychologists as the ______________. a. boomer generation b. pizza generation c. sandwich generation d. hot-dog generation

Are the phenomena of the empty nest, boomerang children, the sandwich generation, and grandparenting culturally dependent? Why might such phenomena be different in societies where multigenerational families are the norm?

Work and Leisure

Jobs at Midlife ProductivityJob satisfaction Worker characteristics and attitudes

Challenges of Work: On-the-Job Dissatisfaction What is the greatest underlying cause of burnout?

On-the-Job Dissatisfaction: Burnout Burnout occurs when highly trained professionals experience dissatisfaction, disillusionment, frustration, and weariness from their jobs. –For many workers, unemployment is a hard reality of life and the implications are more psychological than economic. –Middle-aged adults tend to stay unemployed longer than do young workers.

Unemployment: The Dashing of the Dream Causes economic and psychological consequences –May feel anxious, depressed, and irritable –Self-confidence and concentration may plummet –Sometimes depression and/or suicide

Unemployment: The Dashing of the Dream Employers may discriminate because of age and not hire older applicants Older workers have less absenteeism, hold their jobs longer, are more reliable, and are more willing to learn new skills

Switching—and Starting—Careers at Midlife Some people change or seek jobs voluntarily in middle adulthood –Old job gave little satisfaction –Mastery of the old job's challenges achieved –No longer enjoy what they do –Need employment after raising children, divorce, or death of spouse

When Mom Goes to Work…Hey, What Do You Think She Has Been Doing At Home All Those Years? 65 percent of women between ages of 50 and 60 (80 percent of those who graduated from college) are now in the workforce Three-quarters are in full-time jobs

Leisure Time: Life Beyond Work Leisure activities –Average number of hours –Nature of activities Pace of life differs across countries

DemographicsContributionsPrejudice Immigrants on the job: Making it in America

People in middle age view their jobs differently than before, placing more emphasis on short- term factors and less on career striving and ambition. Midlife career changes are becoming more prevalent, motivated usually by dissatisfaction, the need for more challenge or status, or the desire to return to the workforce after childrearing.

People in midlife usually have increased leisure time. Often they use it to become more involved outside the home in recreational and community activities.

Burnout is more likely to strike individuals who are in helping professions. True False

Compared to younger adults, middle-aged adults who lose their jobs ___________. a. tend to stay unemployed longer and have fewer opportunities for gratifying work as they age. b. tend to find jobs quickly because of their skills but find it difficult to stay employed. c. find it difficult to get new jobs, but once employed have a stable work history. d. are less likely to become depressed, which makes it easier for them to obtain employment.

Why might striving for occupational success be less appealing in middle age than before? What cognitive and personality changes might contribute to this phenomenon?