Psychological Motives Physiological motives and emotions deal primarily with continuing life Sex Homeostasis – food, water, Emotions Fear – avoiding injury Disgust – avoid sickness Anger & aggression - confront threat What about other things that do not aid survival? Why have hobbies, play games, make (or break) things, socialize with others, etc. Why certain survival choices (occupation) and not others – engineering vs. psychology?

Psychological Motives Brain “requirements” not necessarily essential for survival Very important for health and happiness Things people require to thrive People can survive without these things but not prosper Doing these things brings enjoyment/pleasure Just as fulfilling physiological needs [food, sex, etc.] does

What are the psychological Motives? Not tied to specific objects/activities In contrast to physiological needs & emotions Asking 100 people would result in a long list with many unique items This approach would lead to problems associated with instinct theories Common themes of “psychological motives” Common sources of pleasure/satisfaction in the multitude of things people do for psychological needs

Identifying candidates for psychological motives Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser (2001) Describe most satisfying event in last week, month, or semester (three studies) Rate extent that “During this event I felt…” 30 different statements (5 point scale; not at all to very much) “that my choices were based on my true interests and values” (autonomy) “that I was successfully completing difficult tasks and projects” (competence) “a sense of contact with people who care for me, and whom I care for” (relatedness) “that I had many positive qualities” (self-esteem)

Identifying candidates for psychological motives Three statements each from 10 different dimensions (e.g., autonomy) “that my choices were based on my true interests and values” “free to do things my own way” “that my choices expressed my ‘true self’” Highest scores for 4 (of the 10) qualities above Satisfaction associated with things that: raise our view/attitude toward self (self-esteem) involve significant others (relatedness) demonstrate that we are competent (competence) that were self-determined (autonomy)

Identifying candidates for psychological motives Why might these be important? These types of things can be associated with nearly any behavior Hobbies, games, activities, etc. can all be viewed through these dimension Psychological needs help reinforce and guide behavior toward success Seek further challenges in domain Help people find vocational niches in social system

Curiosity Early exploration into psychological motives Scientific Origins Behaviorism Drives (hunger, thirst, sex) energize behavior Animals encounter drive reducing stimulus Learn & become efficient at finding stimuli Exploration is innate and not just produced by drives Intelligent animals will explore objects even when there is no reason (drive) Novelty – interest in objects gradually diminishes as the objects are explored  Preference for complex stimuli

Exploratory Behavior Important for survival Finding food, shelter, mates, avoiding danger, etc. Positive Feedback Novel things are explored Understanding them is rewarding Explore other novel things

Exploratory Behavior Moderators Negative affect – fear, anxiety Survival takes precedence over exploring Secure attachment in infants Individual Differences Openness to Experience Extroversion Anxiety Sensation Seeking

Origins of Curiosity Curiosity Evident in all intelligent animals Not major source of satisfaction (from above study) Curiosity (Exploratory Behavior) allows competence & autonomy Knowing environment, people, objects that you encounter to better do other things – find food, avoid danger, have sex, find shelter, etc. Allows for more autonomy Children explore so they are less dependent on others Autonomy relative to group – couples will specialize in different tasks so together they are autonomous

Intrinsic Motivation “Core” Psychological Motives Autonomy (control) Competence Relatedness Self-esteem Secondary Motives that arise from “Core” Curiosity – function of autonomy & competence

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation from within self Typically refers to psychological motives Inherent pleasure associated with behavior Extrinsic Motivation due to environmental incentives/consequences Behavior is not inherently enjoyable Behavior is done because of anticipated consequences (e.g., money, food, social rewards, etc.)

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation Behaviors Same behavior might be driven by different motives in different people Example: competition – athletic, mental, social, etc.  Intrinsic motivation – enjoy the task, enjoys competition  Extrinsic motivation – social acknowledgement of accomplishment Ramifications of intrinsic vs. extrinsic Maintaining extrinsic depends on reward Intrinsic motivation more likely to persist

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation Assessing whether behavior is due to intrinsic or extrinsic motives can be difficult Behavioral measures (choice, intensity, persistence) can be used only when certain that there is not extrinsic motivation Physiological measures do not have this precision yet Self-reports might disentangle extrinsic from intrinsic if well designed and people report honestly

Instrumental Conditioning External cue provides sign that certain behavior will result in positive or negative consequence Classic example Cage with lever Animal presses lever Animal gets food Extrinsic Motivation – external events that alters likelihood of future behavior Impact on primary needs (physiological, psychology, emotional) Act as intermediate reinforcer (money)

Instrumental Conditioning Reinforcers Stimuli or events that make “appropriate” behavior more likely to occur in a given situation Learning what to do Positive Reinforcer Stimulus that increases likelihood of future behavior when presented Positive stimuli that are presented when behavior occurs  Money, food, praise, etc.

Instrumental Conditioning Negative Reinforcer Stimulus that increases the likelihood of future behavior when removed Aversive stimuli that are removed when behavior occurs  Seat belt chime, alarm clock, Appropriate behavior allows you to escape or avoid aversive stimuli

Instrumental Conditioning Punishers Stimuli or events that make “unappropriate” behavior less likely to occur in a given situation Learning what NOT to do Negative Punisher Stimulus that decreases the likelihood of future behavior when removed Aversive stimuli that are presented when behavior occurs  Spanking Negative punishers are intended to stop unwanted behaviors Negative reinforcers are intended to encourage wanted behaviors

Instrumental Conditioning Positive Punisher Stimulus that decreases the likelihood of future behavior when presented Positive stimuli that are removed when behavior occurs  Taking away toy, Positive punishers are intended to stop unwanted behaviors Some things can be both positive and negative punishers “time-out” is taking way freedom (positive punisher) and might also be aversive (negative punisher)

Effects of Punishment Short term intended effect of compliance Long Term Consequences May lead to other negative consequences (e.g., increased aggression, lower quality relations, etc.) Studies are mostly correlational in nature Punishment focuses on what not to do Need to also teach/reinforce what to do

Instrumental Conditioning Instrumental vs. Classical Conditioning Classical – learning the association between two stimuli – one stimulus predicts another Instrumental – learning the association between a behavior and stimulus (consequence)

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation Motivation driven by inherent pleasure associated with behavior Extrinsic motivation Motivation driven by external reward for doing behavior How does using extrinsic motivation influence intrinsic Competence & autonomy (and curiosity) will make children interested in reading, math, etc. What happens to this motivation if reinforcement or punishment is applied?

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation preferable for many behaviors e.g., behaviors that are generally “healthy” – mental/physical exercise (reading, education, physical activities, etc.) No need for external reward (behavior is more consistent) Intrinsically driven behavior tends to be “better” Extrinsic – focus on reward not quality of behavior Intrinsic – focus on behavior and learning (improvement), more creativity Intrinsically behavior is more enjoyable and fulfilling

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation Motivational Orientations Complex behaviors (work, school) often involve both motivations Certain tasks are driven by extrinsic and others by intrinsic

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation What happens when extrinsic motivation is applied to behavior that is driven by intrinsic motivation? Research by Lepper & colleagues Assess children’s interest in drawing Identify children who “enjoy” drawing These children are either:  Given expected extrinsic reward for drawing  Given unexpected extrinsic reward  Not given extrinsic reward After reward, children watched to assess intrinsic motivation toward drawing Children given expected extrinsic reward drew less than other two groups

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation What happens when extrinsic motivation is applied to behavior that is driven by intrinsic motivation? Giving extrinsic reward can reduce intrinsic motivation Initial results in children have been replicated in adults and using a variety of tasks (e.g., solving puzzles, playing games,) Under what conditions is intrinsic motivation reduced Reward must be expected before the behavior (initiate behavior to obtain the reward)  e.g., clean room and then you can watch TV  Unexpected rewards do not reduce intrinsic motivation Reward must be tangible – money, objects, etc.  Verbal/Social rewards generally do not reduce intrinsic motivation

Effects of Extrinsic Motivation Can extrinsic reward lead to intrinsic? Less research in this area but it is possible

Sensation Seeking Preference for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences and willingness to take risks Take test on pp of Franken Individual difference related to curiosity Some evidence that this relates to levels of brain chemicals High monoamine oxidase which relates to low levels of Norepinephrine, dopamine & serotonin Experience greater rewards from “pleasant” activities that involve dopamine – drugs, sex, food,

Sensation Seeking Dimensions Adventure Seeking Risk involves fear & anxiety – success can result in these increasing pleasure (excitation transfer) Experience Seeking Travel, friends, activities, things that are unconventional Disinhibition Loosing control Boredom susceptibility

Creativity Tendency to generate ideas that can be useful in solving problems, communicating, and entertaining Occurs in all areas of life – art, science, sport, etc. Origins Not related to intelligence (above minimal level) Related to individual differences in curiosity (such as sensation seeking) Diverse experience allow creativity

Play Rough-and-tumble Play Common across all mammals (also birds but less regular) Females tend to play more with children in most mammals but that may be different in humans Common time course across species – increases during early juvenile period, remains elevated, decreases during puberty Humans approximately 20% of life; dogs 5% Differs in many ways from aggression – suggesting it is not practice for later aggression Often linked with exploratory behavior but may be different Animals & people explore more in novel environment and play less Stimulants (Ritalin) tend to increase exploratory behavior and decrease play Could symptoms of ADHD be avoided with more rough-and-tumble play?

Play Tickling Form of pleasure associated with play that helps encourage play Sensitive skin areas for tickling (children – back of neck & around ribs Only sensitive to others - can’t tickle yourself Reducing sensations (anesthesia) does not diminish desire but does diminish amount (brain is driver of play, skins sensations help provide pleasure)

Play Functions? Social Bonding, cooperation, leadership, etc. Non-social Physical fitness, coordination, skills, etc.