Learning Principles & Applications 7-9% of AP Exam

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov –Russian –digestion & blood circulation –Experimentation – dogs & tuning fork –conditioning

Conditioning Classical Conditioning - A learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (ucs).

Conditioning Neutral stimulus – a stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of the unconditioned response. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – an event that elicits a certain predictable response without previous training. Unconditioned response (UCR) – an organism’s natural reaction to a stimulus.

Conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) – a once- neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned response (CR) – the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.

General Principles of Classical Conditioning 1. Acquisition –Occurs gradually –Each pairing of (CS) & (UCS) causes the conditioned response (CR) to strengthen! –Most reliable when (CS) presented just before (UCS) – ½ second

General Principles of Classical Conditioning 2. Extinction 3. Spontaneous Recovery 4. Generalization 5. Discrimination

General Principles of Classical Conditioning 2. Generalization & Discrimination *** POINT TO REMEMBER… Biology plays a role Research suggests that animals and humans are biologically prepared to make certain connections more easily than others! Example – Taste aversions

Classical Conditioning & Human Behavior Little Albert Bed Wetting - “bell and pad” Taste Aversions –Humans –Rats and flavored water –Coyotes

Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning – learning in which a behavior is reinforced or punished – causing an increase or decrease in occurrence. B.F. Skinner – Behaviorist Behavior influenced by a history of rewards & punishments

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement – A stimulus that follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. Common reinforcers for people – –Social approval –Money –Extra privileges

Positive & Negative Reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when something desirable is given after a behavior. Negative reinforcement occurs when something unpleasant is taken away after a behavior. (Not punishment!) –Example – seatbelt bell in car…

Primary & Secondary Reinforcers Primary reinforcer – satisfies a biological need such as hunger, thirst, or sleep. Secondary reinforcer – is paired with a primary reinforcer & through classical conditioning acquires value and reinforcement. –Chimpanzees Poker chips & Chimp-o-mat – dispenses bananas and peanuts. –Money - most common secondary reinforcer with humans – also praise, status, prestige.

Shaping & Chaining Shaping – A process of “molding” a desired behavior by rewarding any act similar to desired behavior and moving person/animal to desired behavior. –Example – rate and flag… Response chain (chaining) – learned reactions that follow one another in sequence. –Example – swimming Arm chain Breathing chain Leg/kicking chain

Aversive Control Aversive control – a process of influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli.

Punishment Punishment – anything that makes a behavior less likely. –Positive punishment – the addition of something unpleasant. –Negative punishment – the removal of something pleasant. Punishment most effective if: –Immediate & harsh Unwanted consequences – fear & anger

Aversive Control Punishment –Different than “negative reinforcement” –In negative reinforcement, behavior is repeated & increases in frequency. –In punishment behavior decreases or is not repeated. –Disadvantages of punishment: Unwanted side effects – rage, aggression & fear Spanking can lead to aggression Avoidance Generally suppression not elimination

Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous schedule of reinforcement – every time the behavior occurs. –Behavior quickly extinct if reinforcement stops. Partial schedule of reinforcement – occurs only intermittently. –generally more stable –Last longer

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement organized 4 ways 1. Fixed-ratio schedule (FR4) –Reinforcement given on a specified quantity of responses (reward every 4 th response). –Example Typist paid by the number of pages completed –People tend to work hard on fixed-ration schedule.

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement organized 4 ways 2. Variable-ratio schedule – reinforcement occurs randomly. (VR4) Example - Slot machines – set to pay off after a varying number of attempts at pulling the handle. Animals on variable ratio tend to work at a steady/high rate.

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement organized 4 ways 3. Fixed interval schedule (FI3) –Time interval is always the same –Example Paychecks –Often stop responding immediately after reinforcement is given and respond again toward end of interval. –Periods of inactivity and short bursts of responding.

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement organized 4 ways 4. Variable interval schedule – (VI4) –The time at which the reinforcement is given changes. –Example Calling a person on a “busy” phone –Usually a slow, but steady rate of desired behavior

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement organized 4 ways Does extinction occur more often on a fixed or variable schedule? –Fixed

Cognitive Learning Learning is not mindless! Has a cognitive component Four types of Cognitive Learning…

1. Observational Learning Also known as modeling – Learning by observing others Albert Bandura – Social-Learning Theory –Bobo doll experiment

2. Latent Learning Latent – “hidden” Three groups of rats in a maze Cognitive Map

3. Abstract Learning Abstract Learning – involves understanding concepts such as “different” or “same” rather than pressing buttons for rewards. (higher level thinking)

4. Insight Learning Occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem Wolfgang Kohler - Chimpanzees and pigeons – problem solving.