Bowlby – internal working model Early emotional attachment determines later/adult relationships Ainsworth – attachment type Secure = stable, trusting relationships Resistant = insecure in their relationships Avoidant = unresponsive in their relationships Secure believed in love : Insecure more likely to divorce Schwartz The physiological response to fear ect. Is similar to love e.g. those who are insecurely attached cant distinguish successfully between the two so are less successful in adult relationships Freud Electra complex and Oedipus complex in the Phallic stage, help produce schemas and scripts for emotionally close relationships E.g. Those with violent models, learn to use violence to solve conflict therefore will form violent adult relationships. Those with happy good models, learn to form happy successful adult relationships Ehrensaft Children who witness violence are more likely to form abusive adult relationships, using violence to solve conflict

Gould Adolescents is a time of challenging childhood false assumptions such as the parents being almighty, and the parental world is the only one. By accepting the differences in their world they achieve independence and are free from separation anxiety, so can form successful adult relationships Social Learning Theory Alternative explanation, through mimicry a child learns how there mom/dad is in an adult relationship which will determine how they are in an adult relationship Learning Theory Operant conditioning = Child will learn how to behave in an adult relationship based upon the rewards/punishments they receive e.g. a child punished a lot, will be withdrawn in a relationship

Powerful, voluntary relationships form during this stage, more important than family relationships Adolescent relationships are key to adult development and well being Zani 25% of 12yr olds had been in a relationship compared to 70% 18yr olds. Although there are negatives, it increases self-worth and respect from peers Longitudinal study in Germany Casual link between quality of adolescents relationship and quality of commitment in adult relationships Advantages of peer interaction. The research evidence on the beneficial effects of the peer group, leads to the conclusion that peer group integration is very important to psychological well-being and successful assimilation of adult roles, and so research has the potential for positive applications When looking at adult relationships and only considering peer – peer interactions, you are only looking at the external factors therefore ignoring the internal factors such as personality, and therefore not taking account of individual differences, thus suggesting when looking at adult relationships a multi-factorial explanation is needed. Parent - child relationships may offer an explanation to personality influences in peer – peer relationships Freud – those without an adult model, will feel uncomfortable in adult relationships and maybe avoid them altogether, suggesting that they would also avoid them during adolescents.

Western cultures are regarded as individualistic : Eastern which are regarded as collectivistic Individualistic cultures emphasise self autonomy, achievement, themselves and their own family Theories in the formation of relationships such as Reward/need Satisfaction and Social exchange which focus on rewards and selfishness (Foa + Foa identified rewards such as money, sex, love) Collectivistic cultures emphasise group decisions and loyalty Romantic love Individualistic cultures regard this as important as the basis of marriage : Collectivistic cultures Fischer F: 166 societies 87% believed in romantic love and relationships therefore it isn’t just a western construct Kephart F: When asking “if a boy/girl had all the qualities you desired in him/her, would you marry them even if you didn’t love them??” in 10 countries, those perceived as western had a higher % of “no” than those perceived as western Levine F: Using the same Q. found similar results Friendships People in individualistic culture has more superficial friendships : collectivists Goodwin F: Collectivistic cultures had fewer friendships but were longer lasting

Voluntary/ Involuntary Individualistic cultures focus more on finding your own partner on the basis of romantic love : Collectivistic cultures focus more on arranged marriages on the basis of social status Gupta + Singh F: Even though collectivistic cultures were not initially based upon love, after 10 years arranged marriages showed more love : marriages based on love. Permanent/ Impermanent Some cultures accept divorce more than others, but in western societies divorce rates are increasing Goodwin F: China sees divorce as shameful only having a 4% rate : US which sees divorce as more acceptable and has a divorce rate of 40-50% Dion + Dion F: The reason for such high divorce rates in individualistic societies was because of their personal autonomy making it hard to maintain a stable happy marriage Cross cultural research to some extent has an imposed etic, therefore it is unreliable as an conclusions bases upon the research may not be representative of the culture being studied The differences between cultures are not clear cut, therefore any comparisons are reductionist, as they don’t consider the finer details between cultures.