The Argument Essay Modes of Organization

What is argument? A contest between opposing forces to prove the other side wrong? A battle with words? These days it seems that an argument is often little more than raised voices interrupting one another, exaggerated assertions without adequate support, personal attacks, and scanty evidence from sources that lack credibility.

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Did you know… “Debate” and “battle” share the same Latin root. You succeed in an argument when you persuade your audience. You win a fight when you dominate your enemy. The basic difference between an argument and a fight is that an argument, done skillfully, gets people to do what you want. You fight to win; you argue to achieve agreement.

Claims Every argument has a claim—also called an assertion or a proposition—that states the argument’s main idea or position. – A claim differs from the subject because it has to be arguable – It can’t be a simple statement of fact – Going from a simple topic to a claim means stating your informed opinion about a topic

Types of Claims Claims of fact: assert that something is true or not true—often pivot on what is exactly “factual” – Facts become arguable when they are questioned, raise controversy, or change opinions Claims of value: assert that something is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable or undesirable – May be personal judgments based on taste or more objective evaluations based on external criteria Claims of policy: are made any time a rhetor is proposing a change. – Generally begins with a definition of the problem (claim of fact) explains why it is a problem (claim of value), and then explains the change that needs to happen (claim of policy)

Claim to Thesis To be effective, a thesis statement must preview the essay by encapsulating in clear, unambiguous language the main point or points the author wants to make. This may be implicit in some professional essays that you read, but for the purposes of this class—your thesis better be there!

Types of Thesis Statements Closed-thesis: limits the number of points an author can make. – Example: The three-dimensional characters, exciting plot, and complex themes of the Harry Potter series make them not only legendary children’s books but also enduring literary classics. Open thesis: does not explicitly list all of the points you intend to cover in your essay. – Example: The popularity of the Harry Potter series demonstrates that simplicity trumps complexity when it comes to the taste of readers, both young and old.

Types of Thesis Statements Counterargument thesis: includes a summary of the counterargument followed by a qualifier (although, but, however, nevertheless, etc) and then concludes with the writer’s opinion – Although the Harry Potter series may have some literary merit, its popularity has less to do with storytelling than it does with merchandising. – Notice the slight concession—this will be important later when you want to address the counter and possibly offer a rebuttal

Evidence Regardless of the type of evidence, it should always be relevant, accurate, varied, and sufficient.

Types of Evidence First-Hand: something you know, whether it’s from personal experience, anecdotes from others, observations, or general knowledge – Personal experience adds a human element and allows you to speak as an insider – Anecdotes offer engaging stories – Current events can be established through observation but be careful about bias!

Types of Evidence Second hand evidence: assessed through research, reading, investigation – Historical information can provide context – Expert opinions lend credibility – Quantitative evidence offers rationality

Shaping Your Argument The means by which you choose to present your argument—the organization or shape— reflect a host of factors; most importantly, your audience and purpose, and your available means. Once you have determined a few things, you need to pick the best mode in which to present your argument.

Mode 1: The Classical Oration This is a five-part structure for oration that many writers fall unconsciously into

Classical Oration Structure I. The Introduction (exordium) I.Introduces the reader to the subject by piquing interest, offering a challenge, and establishing author’s ethos II. The Narration (narratio) I.Provides factual information/background material or establishes why this commonplace issue is a problem that needs addressing. This may take a few paragraphs. II.Classic narration often appeals to logos, but can cross over into an appeal to pathos in order to evoke an emotional response to the problem at hand.

Classical Oration Structure III. The Confirmation (confirmatio) I.Usually the major part of your text; this includes the development of proof needed to make your case. This includes the most specific and concrete details IV. The Refutation (refutatio) I.This addresses the counterargument and also acts a bridge between your proof and your conclusion. Classically, this appears at the end of your essay, but this is not a hard and fast rule—if opposing view points are well known or valued by an audience, a writer will often address them before presenting his own argument. (“It is often said that “XYZ,” but in actuality, …”)

Classical Oration Structure V. The Conclusion (peroratio) I.Whether this is one paragraph or several, this should bring your argument to a satisfying close. Rely on pathos, but remind your reader of the ethos you established earlier. Give a call to action; offer a profound insight; these last lines are the ones that the audience will likely remember the most.

Practice Read Not by Math Alone by Sandra Day O’Connor and Roy Romer. Spend some time analyzing its organization and rhetorical structure and create a Rhetorical Treasure Hunt poster!

Induction Induction comes from the Latin inducere, “to lead into.” It means arranging your argument so that it leads from particulars to universals, using specific cases to draw conclusions.

Induction For example, – Regular exercise promotes weight loss. – Exercise lowers stress levels. – Exercise improves mood and outlook. Generalization: Therefore, exercise contributes to better health. You have been trained to write most of your essays in the inductive form—reasons, one after another supporting the main point.

Induction Inductive arguments can never be said to be true or false, right or wrong; rather, we call them weak or strong Therefore, it’s important to consider vulnerabilities or exceptions to the rule. Strong arguments will address these and offer solutions.

Practice Look at the excerpt from Malcolm Gladwell’s Outliers and complete the worksheet.

Deduction When you are using deduction, you reach a conclusion by starting with general principles or universal truths (major premises) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise). Deductive reasoning is often structured as a syllogism—a logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion.

Deduction Major Premise: Exercise contributes to better health. Minor Premise: Yoga is a type of exercise. Conclusion: Therefore, yoga contributes to better health. The strength of deductive logic is that if the first two premises are correct or true, then the conclusion is logically valid. Keep in mind, though, that if either premise is false, the conclusion is subject to challenge.

Deduction Major Premise: Celebrities are role models for young people. Minor Premise: Lindsey Lohan is a celebrity. Conclusion: Therefore, Lindsey Lohan is a role model for young people. The conclusion is logically valid—but is it true? You can challenge the veracity of the major premise— that is, whether all celebrities are role models for young people.

Practice Create a strong syllogism that includes a Major Premise, a Minor Premise, and a Conclusion.

The Mystery Backpack Construct either an INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE multi-paragraph argument that answers the following question: – TO WHOM DOES THIS MYSTERY BACKPACK BELONG? Use the classical oration to begin. Start with your Intro and Narration. Then, use induction/deduction in your confirmation. If you are writing inductively, then start by making claims as your topic sentences. These should be arguable. Use your body paragraph to prove these claims.

How to construct inductively – Begin with your intro. Include a thesis. – Offer narration—background on the backpack. – Start your confirmation by making claims as your topic sentences. These should be arguable. Use your confirmation paragraphs to prove these claims. – Address the refutation. – Come to a conclusion.

How to construct deductively Offer your syllogism in your intro paragraph. Use your conclusion as your thesis. – Offer narration—background on the backpack. – Start your confirmation by making using your premises as your topic sentences. These should NOT be arguable. Use your confirmation paragraphs to develop the truth of your premises. – Since your premises will be true, you will not have a refutation. – Make it clear that therefore, your argument is your only conclusion possible.

Combining Inductive and Deductive It’s more common for an essay to combine modes depending on the situation. Induction—a series of examples—may be used to verify a major premise, then that premise can become the foundation for deductive reasoning. You can see this in the Declaration of Independence.

Practice Using our practice with the Declaration of Independence, read Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s Declaration of Sentiments, which was presented on July 19, 1848 at the Seneca Falls Convention. Analyze the use of induction and deduction to support the claim and develop the argument.

Combining Induction and Deduction While some essays are either completely inductive or deductive, it’s more common for an essay to combine the two depending on the situation. Induction—a series of examples—may be used to frame a major premise, then that premise may become the framework for deductive reasoning.

Combining Deductive and Inductive The Declaration of Independence is an example of inductive and deductive logic at work. Context: Thomas Jefferson and the other framers drafted the document to prove that the colonies were justified in their rebellion against King George III. Declaration of Independence

Practice The argument for the entire document can be distilled into a syllogism. Directions: Determine the Major and Minor premises and write a complete syllogism for the Declaration of Independence.

Practice Now, look at the Declaration of Sentiments by Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Modeled on the Declaration of Independence, Stanton’s Declaration was presented on July 19, 1848 at the Seneca Falls Convention. On your copy, determine the syllogism. THEN, mark which parts of the document are organized inductively in order to support the premises and develop her argument (her conclusion to her syllogism). Declaration of Sentiments

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