LEARNING OBJECTIVE: To be able to identify some linguistic terminology and to demonstrate their understanding To know how to begin researching our Spoken Language Coursework

 410 AD: Romans left Britain  450 AD: Invaders – Angles & Saxons, Jutes  Came from Holland, Denmark, Germany  Language: Englisc (Old English)  Words still used today: sheep, earth, dog, work, field...  750 AD: Latin reintroduced by St. Augustine (brought Christianity)  Hundreds of Latin words entered Old English

AD: Invaders – Vikings Came from Scandinavia Language: Norse (sounded a lot like modern Swedish) Words still used today: get, wrong, leg, want, skin, some, low AD: Invaders – Danes Conquered large part of Britain (Chester to Thames) Danish settlement influenced English language – especially dialects of North 1066 AD: Battle of Hastings – Norman Conquest

French Domination  French became spoken language of Aristocracy in England  Latin adopted main written language  English spoken by lower orders of society  French remained 300 yrs – gradually replaced by English  English that emerged – strongly influenced by French  1340 – 1400 AD: 1 st great English writer - Chaucer

 1470’s AD: William Caxton & Printing Press  Catalyst for STANDARDISATION – scholars started writing in English (not Latin)  1480 AD: Caxton printed ‘Canterbury Tales’ Chaucer  Printing fixed grammar & spelling  AD: Shakespeare  1611 AD: First authorised version of English Bible  1620 AD: Ship ‘Mayflower’ took settlers to USA

 1712 AD: Johnathan Swift set up academy of scholars to decide on Standard English.  1755 AD: Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary helped standardise spellings & meanings  1762 AD: Lowth’s grammar of 1762 – most influential.  1760’s AD: Major interest in fixing a Standard of English pronunciation  1791 AD: Walker’s pronouncing dictionary – most influential

The meaning of words Denotation & Connotation Collocation Neologism Sense Relations: Synonymy, Antonymy, Homonymy, Polysemy, Hyponymy

 Words that habitually ‘go together’ are collocated words  Fish and chips  Thunder and lightening  Pretty woman

 Newly created words - arise most commonly through:  Compounding: couch potato (1976), Euro-sceptic (1980’s)  Derivation: yuppie (from young urban – or upwardly mobile – professional. 1980’s), PIN (personal identification number. 1980’s)  Adopting a new meaning: icon (computer icon. 1980’s), spin-doctor (someone who presents political stories in a good way. 1984)  Borrowing: nouvelle cuisine (1970’s), fatwa (legal ruling given by Islamic religious leader. 1989)

 Synonyms are words which share the same meaning*  Deep/profound  ‘You have my deep/profound sympathy’  ‘This river is very deep’ (This river is very profound = NO!)  Ripe/mature  ‘The pears are now ripe/mature to eat’  ‘He is mature for his age’ (He is ripe for his age = NO!) *Many linguists argue that there is no such thing as a synonym, because no two words have exactly the same connotations or are used in the same context.

 A word which has an opposite meaning to another is called an antonym.  Gradable antonyms: can be graded on a scale  Hot/cold, high/low, fast/slow, wet/dry…  Binary antonyms: express an either/or relationship  Dead/alive, same/different, single/married…  Converse antonyms: dependent on one another  Buy/sell, borrow/lend, wife/husband, parent/child…

 Homonyms are words which are identical in spelling and/or pronunciation, but different in meaning and/or origin.  Some homographs: identical in spelling & pronunciation – but different in meaning & origin  Mug, dipstick, flag, …  Others are identical in spelling but not meaning, origin & pronunciation  Lead, refuse, bow, number…  Homophones: identical in pronunciation – but different in spelling & meaning  In RP: Dye/die, there/their/they’re, reed/read…

 A polysemous word has several closely related senses  Mouth (of a river vs. of an animal)  The two senses are clearly related by the concepts of an opening from the interior of some solid mass to the outside  Guard (person who guards vs. solid protective shield)  Earth/earth (or planet vs. soil)

 A hyponym has the semantic relation of being subordinate or belonging to a lower rank or class  Superordinate term – Pig tree Hyponyms - sow, piglet, boar beech, oak, fir

Hyponymy Think of at least 3 hyponyms to accompany their superordinate Dog Red House

Homonymy & Polysemy Choose whether these are homonyms or polysemous. 1. bark (of a tree vs. of a dog) H/P 2. fork (in a road vs, for eating with) H/P 3. tail (of a coat vs. of an animal) H/P 4. steer (to guide vs. young bull) H/P 5. lip (of a jug vs. of a person) H/P 6. punch (blow with a fist vs. fruity alcoholic drink)

The structure of English Sentence structure & function Voice: Active & Passive Sentence Analysis

3 basic types of sentence: Simple – contains only one clause* E.g All animals are equal. Compound – two or more main clauses usually joined with a conjunction E.g He called for his pipe and he called for his bowl. Complex – consists of main clause & one or more subordinate* clauses E.g the headteacher later claimed that the student had lied. *Clause: all or part of sentence - needs to contain at least a verb *Subordinate clause: cannot stand alone as a complete sentence

 Declarative (statement): to convey information E.g My father had a small estate in Nottinghamshire.  Interrogative (question): to ask for information E.g Who’s there?  Imperative (command): to instruct someone to do something E.g Bring some pepper, Mason.  Exclamative (exclamations): used to express strong emotions or assertions E.g You’re a lout!

 Active – Subject= agent/actor/doer – performs the action E.g. He eats apples. Subj. E.g. Journalists immediately surrounded her.  Passive – Subject suffers the action (‘patient’) E.g. I was surrounded by journalists Subj. Doer E.g. She was immediately surrounded by Journalists.