WEEK 6 Communication Theory: Semiotics Intro to Communication Dr. P.M.G. Verstraete

Processing & Signification (Semiosis)

Recap last week: towards signification

Signification We are all engaged in meaning = structural, not linear! triangular

“the more we share the same codes, the more we use the same sign systems, the closer our two ‘meanings’ of the message will approximate to each other.” Signification

Uncommon language: No communication? Here there is no sharing; hence, There is no communication! Really?

Models of signification / meaning-making Semiotics / Semiology

How do we make meaning?

Semiotics / Semiology How do we make meaning?

What is Semiotics? Semiotics is the study of signs. A sign is something that stands for something other than itself. Signification is the act of making meaning (‘signifying’). Semiotics / Semiology

What is a ‘sign’?: A word such as, “ Tree ” or a picture Or a drawing

Two main approaches: Ferdinand de Saussure ( ) Charles Sander Pierce ( ) Semiotics / Semiology + Ogden and Richards (1923)

All models of signification always consist of: (1) the sign itself (2) that to which it refers (3) the users of the sign Semiotics / Semiology

1. C.S. Peirce ( )

(1) Sign (2) Interpretant (“the proper significate effect”, mental concept) (3) Object (in reality) each can only be understood in relation of the others C.S. Peirce

> the limits are set by social convention > decoding is as active and encoding C.S. Peirce

2. Ogden & Richards (1923)

Different words for the same:  Symbol = Sign  Reference = Interpretant  Referent = Object Ogden & Richards

Difference with Peirce : connection between symbol and referent is indirect or imputed. Ogden & Richards

Towards Saussure : Symbols direct and organize our thoughts or references; and our references organize our perception of reality. Ogden & Richards

3. Ferdinand de Saussure ( )

F. de Saussure  Symbol = Signifier  Referent = Signified

Saussure believed that signs do not represent reality but construct it. He is interested in how we give meaning to the world around us through a structural relationship of signs, people, and objects. His focus is on language: he is concerned with the way signs (or, in his case, words) relate to other signs. We come to know the world through language. Signs reflect the system they are found in. The relationship between the sign/signifier is not a matter of personal choice. “ It is because the sign is arbitrary that it knows no law other than tradition. ” F. de Saussure

Signifieds = the mental concepts we use to divide reality up and categorize it so that we can understand it = artificial, made by people, (sub-)cultures F. de Saussure

Signification = culturally specific! (as much as the signifiers or words are in each language), so also historically located! (may change in time)

F. de Saussure Signification / meaning is defined by the relationships of one sign to another, rather than by the relationship of that sign to an external reality. the relationship of the sign to others in the system = value and value determines meaning

Organisation of signs We have to categorize the variety of signs, according to:  Saussure: the way that signifier relates to other signifiers  Peirce: the way that the sign relates to the object

Saussure emphasized that meaning arises from the differences between signifiers. These differences are of two kinds: syntagmatic (concerning combination) and paradigmatic (concerning choice/substitution). See: Semiotics for Beginners (Daniel Chandler) F. de Saussure

These two dimensions are often presented as 'axes’: Syntagm (horizontal): the combination of 'this-and-this- and-this’ = possibilities of combination For example: the sentence, 'the man cried’ Paradigm (vertical): the selection of 'this-or-this-or-this' = functional contrasts - they involve differentiation For example: the replacement of the last word in the same sentence with 'died' or 'sang'). F. de Saussure

Paradigm : a set of signs from which the one to be used is chosen (only one unit from that set may be chosen) F. de Saussure

Paradigm : 2 basic characteristics: all the units in a paradigm must have something in common: they share characteristics that determine their membership of that paradigm each unit must be clearly distinguished from all the others in a paradigm: distinctive features are the means by which we distinguish one signifier from another F. de Saussure

Syntagm = the combination of the chosen unit with other units Important! the rules or conventions by which the combination of units is made Cf. syntax or grammar in language; melody in music; taste/sense of fashion with clothes F. de Saussure

Different paradigms

Different syntagms

What if we change the girl?

F. de Saussure Compare

F. de Saussure Compare

F. de Saussure Compare

Motivation of the Sign To study the relationship between signifier and signified: Arbitrary = determined by convention, rule, agreement (= symbols) Iconic: an iconic sign is one where the form of the signifier is determined to some extent by the signified Motivation: the extent to which the signified determines the signifier (very iconic = highly motivated / arbitrary sign = unmotivated) Constraint: the influence that the signified exerts on the signifier (the more motivated, the more its signifier is constrained by the signified) P. Guiraud & R.Barthes

C.S. Peirce Peirce’s interest: relationship of signified to reality Three types, also in a triangular relation: Cf. Ogden & Richards

C.S. Peirce icon : sign resembles object in some way index : a direct link, a direct existential connection between sign and object symbol : no connection or resemblance between sign and object; only by agreement, convention or rule

Icon

Index

Symbol

Is this a symbol, icon, or index?

Symbol, Icon, or Index? 1, 2, 3, 4, … I, II, III, IV, V, …

Symbol, Icon, or Index?

Paradigm or Syntagm?

Note: A sign may be composed of various types! (cf. a road sign can be iconic, symbolic and indexical at the same time) Analysis: What about cartoons?