New Approaches to Civil Rights Chapter 26, Section 3 By Bruce Diehl

I. Fighting for Greater Opportunity A.During the 1960s and early 1970s, Native Americans, Hispanic Americans, and African Americans organized to improve their position within society.

B.Affirmative Action 1.African American leaders looked to affirmative action to gain good jobs and adequate housing. 2.This initiative, enforced anti-discrimination through executive orders and federal policies.

B.Affirmative Action (cont.) 3.It called for companies and institutions doing business with the federal government to actively recruit African American employees to help improve their social and economic status. 4.It was later expanded to include other minority groups and women.

C.Critics of Affirmative action described it as reverse discrimination. 1.In 1974 Allan Bakke, a white applicant, was turned down a second time for admission to the University of California Medical School. 2.He learned there had been slots set aside for minorities. 3.Bakke sued the school, arguing that by admitting minority students, some of whom had scored lower than Bakke, the school had discriminated against him. 4.In 1978, in University of California Regents V. Bakke, the Supreme Court ruled that the university had violated Bakke’s rights. 5.It also ruled that schools could use racial criteria as part of their admissions process, but not fixed quotas.

D.Busing 1.In the early 1970s, there was a push for educational improvements for African American students. 2.Inequality was apparent as schools in white neighborhoods had better supplies, facilities, and teachers. 3.To desegregate schools, local governments implemented a policy known as busing, where children were transported to schools outside their neighborhoods to gain racial balance.

D.Busing (cont.) 4.In Boston, some 20,000 white students left the public school system for parochial and private schools. 5.This “white flight” occurred in other cities as well.

E.PUSH 1.Jesse Jackson, an activist during the civil rights movement, continued to work to strengthen the economic and political power of African Americans. 2.In 1971 Jackson founded the People United to Save Humanity, or PUSH, to register voters, develop African American businesses, and increase educational opportunities.

F.The Congressional Black Caucus 1.The CBC was formed to represent specific legislative concerns of African Americans 2.They especially focused in the areas of health care, economic development, and crime and safety.

Examining What were the goals of affirmative action policies? (p.815)

II.Hispanic Americans Organize A.By the late 1960s, 9 million Hispanic Americans lived in the United States. 1.Their reasons for coming to America ranged from economic opportunities, government oppression, and to escape poverty and war. 2.Hispanic Americans faced the same prejudice as other immigrant groups and began to organize their own protest movement.

B.The United Farm Workers 1.In the early 1960s, Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta organized two groups that fought for the rights of farmworkers. 2.In 1965, after employers would not respond to worker demands, the groups organized a boycott of table grapes and combined into one group, the United Farm Workers. 3.The boycott ended in 1970, when grape growers finally agreed to raise wages and improve working conditions.

C.The United People 1.In 1969 Jose Angel Gutierrez organized a new political party in Texas called La Raza Unida, or “the United People.” 2.The group mobilized Mexican American voters behind a political agenda, calling for job-training programs and greater access to financial institutions.

D.Bilingualism 1.An issue promoted by Hispanic students and political leaders was bilingualism 2.Bilingualism is the practice of teaching immigrant students in their own language while they also learned English.

Explaining How did Hispanic Americans increase their economic opportunities in the 1960s? (p.816)

III. Native Americans Raise their Voices A.Native Americans began to organize in the late 1960s and the early 1970s 1.Their grievances included low income, high unemployment, discrimination, limited education, and short life expectancy. 2.In 1961 Native Americans issued the Declaration of Indian Purpose, calling for policies to create greater economic opportunities on reservations.

B.AIM 1.As other groups wanted assimilation into mainstream society, Native Americans wanted independence from it. 2.Native Americans formed militant groups such as the American Indian Movement (AIM).

C.The Native American movement won some notable victories (cont.) 3.In 1969 AIM made a symbolic protest by occupying the abandoned federal prison on Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay for 19 months, claiming ownership “by right of discovery.” 4.A violent protest occurred in 1973, when AIM members occupied the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota. 5.A clash between the occupiers and the FBI killed two Native Americans.

C.The Native American movement won some notable victories 1.In 1975 the Indian Self- Determination and Educational Assistance Act passed 2.which increased funds for Native American education and enlarged tribal roles in administering federal programs. 3.More Native Americans moved into policy-making positions. 4.Native Americans won a number of land and water rights in court.

Analyzing What conditions led Native Americans to organize in the 1960s? (p.817)