PHRASEOLOGY Phraseology is the branch of lexicology specializing in word-groups, which are characterized by stability of structure and transferred meaning.

. set-expressions . set-phrases . fixed word groups . collocations . phraseological units . idioms

Free word-groups are so called not because of any absolute freedom in using them. Nothing is entirely free in speech as its linear relationships are governed, restricted and regulated, on the one hand, by requirements of logic and common sense and, on the other, by the rules of grammar. One can speak of a dark-eyed girl but not of a dark eyed table (unless in a piece of modernistic poetry where anything is possible). Also to say the child was glad is quite correct, but a glad child is wrong because in Modern English glad is attributively used only with a very limited number of nouns (e.g. glad news), and names of persons are not among them.

The syntactic criterion substantive verbal adjectival adverbial interjectional

fixedness of components unchangeability of order metaphoric meaning Characteristic features of phraseological units fixedness of components unchangeability of order metaphoric meaning

A phraseological unit can be defined as a reproduced and idiomatic (non-motivated) or partially motivated unit built up according to the model of free word-groups or sentences (proverbs and sayings) and semantically and syntactically brought into correlation with words.

semantic structure 1. Denotational (descriptive) macrocomponent that contains the information about the objective reality. 2. Evaluational macrocomponent that contains the information about the value of what is denoted by a phraseological unit.

3. Motivational macrocomponent that correlates with the notion of the inner form of a phraseological unit. 4. Emotive macrocomponent that is the contents of subjective modality expressing feeling-relation to what is denoted by a phraseological unit. 5. Stylistic macrocomponent that points to the communicative register in which a phraseological unit is used.

6. Grammatical macrocomponent that contains the information about all possible morphological and syntactic changes of a phraseological unit. 7. Gender macrocomponent that may be expressed explicitly, i.e. it points out the class of objects denoted by the phraseological unit: men, women, people.

The origin of phraseological units Terminological and professional expressions - physics: center of gravity - to put the finishing touch

British literature the green-eyed monster — 'jealousy' (W.Shakespeare) never say die — 'do not give up hope in a difficult situation' (Ch.Dickens)

British traditions and customs baker's dozen — 'a group of thirteen‘ by bell, book and candle good wine needs no bush

Superstitions and legends a black sheep — 'a less successful or more immoral person in a family or a group'. People believed that a black sheep was marked by the devil the halcyon days — 'a very happy or successful period in the past'

historical facts and events, personalities - to do a Thatcher — 'to stay in power as prime minister for three consecutive terms (from the former Conservative prime minister Margaret Thatcher)

phenomena and facts of everyday life - carry coals to Newcastle — 'to take something to a place where there is plenty of it available'. Newcastle is a town in Northern England where a lot of coal was produced.

Borrowed phraseological units the Holy Script the left hand does not know what the right hand is doing — 'communication in an organization is bad so that one Part does not know what is happening in another part‘ the kiss of Judas — 'any displav of affection whose purpose is to conceal any act of treachery’

ancient legends and myths - a Procrustean bed — 'a harsh, inhumane system into which the individual is fitted by force, regardless of his own needs and wishes' (from Greek Mythology, Procrustes — a robber who forced travelers to lie on a bed and made them fit by stretching their limbs or cutting off the appropriate length of leg

facts and events of the world history -to cross the Rubicon — 'to do something which will have very important results which cannot be changed after'. Julius Caesar started a war which resulted in victory for him by crossing the river Rubicon in Italy

variants of the English language - a heavy hitter — 'someone who is powerful and has achieved a lot' (American ) - be home and hosed — 'to have completed something successfully' (Australian)

other languages (classical and modern) second to none — 'equal with any other and better than most' (from Latin: nulli secundus) the fair sex — 'women' (from French: le beau sex)

Classification of phraseological units Vinogradov /1947; 1964/ Amosova/1963/ Arxangelskij /1964/ Babkin /1964/ Sanskij /1963/ Smirnitckij /1956/ Koonin /1963; 1977/

Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated word groups such as kick the bucket; tit for tat; to make the bag. The meaning of the components has no connection whatever, at least synchronically, with the meaning of the whole group. Idiomaticity is, as a rule, combined with complete stability of the - lexical components and the grammatical structure of the fusion.

Phraseological unities are particularly non-motivated as their meaning can usually be gathered from the metaphoric meanings of the whole phraseological unit: to wash one's dirty linen in public to praise to the skies. Phraseological units are as a rule marked by a high degree of stability of the lexical components.

Phraseological collocations are motivated but they are made up of words possessing a certain degree of stability in such word-combinations. In phraseological collocations the variations of the components is strictly limited -to bear a grudge may be changed into to bear malice, but not into bear a fancy or liking -We can say take a liking /fancy/, but not take hatred /disgust/

Phrasemes are two-member word groups in which one of the members has specialized meaning dependent on the second component: small beer - small hours. Idioms are distinguished from phrasemes by the idiomacity of the whole word-group: red tape. Idioms are semantically and grammatically inseparable units. They may comprise unusual combinations of words: -a mare's nest

Nominative phraseological units are represented by word-groups, including the one's with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases: wear and tear; well and good. The first class also includes word-groups with a predicative structure, such as the crow flies; and also predicative phrases: see how the land lies; see how the cat jumps; ships that pass in the night.

Nominative-communicative phraseological units include word-groups of the type: to break the ice - the ice is broken, that is, verbal word-groups, which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice.

Phraseological units which are neither nominative nor communicative include interjectional word-groups Good heavens! Hear, hear ! Like hell !

Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and sayings Life is not a bed of roses Speech is silvern, but silence is golden