What do we know about Cognitive Psychology? Dissatisfied w/Behaviorist simplistic emphasis on behavior rather than internal processes. What happens between the stimulus and the response? 1967 – Neisser – used the information processing model to talk about how the mind works 1968 – Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Multi Store Model of memory Highly influential in all areas of psychology.

Areas of Application Memory Forgetting Selective attention Perception Language Acquisition/Face Recognition Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Information Processing Cognitive Interview Education/Thinking

The heart of Cognitive is the mind and Computer analogy

Memory The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Take out a piece of paper….. Recall the seven dwarves…..and write down their names. Now name them…..

Was it easy or hard? It depends on several things…. If you like Disney movies? When was the last time you have seen the movie? Or if you even grew up with Disney movies…Experience Matters! Did you experience the Tip of the tongue phenomenon? (TOT) You may have needed some cues.

Two kinds of retrieval: Recall Versus Recognition Recall you must retrieve the information from your memory fill-in-the blank or essay tests Recognition you must identify the target from possible targets multiple-choice tests

Is Memory a Place or a Process? Memory is a process but it has a place in the brain (hippocampus and fissures) Memory is an active system that receives information from the senses. (sensation and perception) That information needs to be put into a usable form. We then organizes it and store it away and Retrieves the information from storage when it is needed.

Information Process Model – Neisser(1967) cognitive revolution

The Memory Process Three step process…. 1.Encoding: The processing of getting information into the memory system. (Sensation/Perception) 2.Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. 3.Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage…. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon May need cues Recall vs. Recognition

Three Box Model of Memory

Sensory Memory A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information. Sperling’s research on Iconic Memory – very short term – seconds See how many letters you remember.

Sensory Memory A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information. Sperling’s research on Iconic Memory Echoic Memory - hearing

Short Term Memory What we encode from the sensory goes to STM. STM is like a desk top, where we work with something for awhile then put it back into a drawer. Holds about 7 (plus or minus 2) items for about 20 seconds. We recall digits better than letters. u/chudler/stm0.html u/chudler/stm0.html

The ways we encode- Levels of Processing Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images. match.html match.html Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.

Encoding information so it will go to LTM Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. Spacing – spread out learning over time. DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!! Mnemonic devices – Acronyms, linking, rhythmic organization, method of loci, acrostic Rehearsal – two kinds "Mary Very Easily Makes Jam Saturday Unless No Plums."

Method of Loci How you say: One of the oldest mnemonic systems A "locus" is a location, "loci" is the plural. Uses locations of a familiar place (imagined in memory) as a framework for memory retrieval. Associate items you wish to remember later with locations of a familiar room, building, or street. To retrieve the information, you mentally "stroll down memory lane" and visualize the same locations. If the method works, the information you stored in various locations will come back with the memory of the location. To be effective, one must usually visualize an object "doing something" or interacting in some way with the objects. Used by Cicero, the Roman orator

Two kinds of Rehearsal – both are effortful encoding Maintenance rehearsal (rote)– practice of saying information over and over to maintain it in short term memory(STM) so that it will go into long term memory(LTM). Elaborative rehearsal – a way of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way. A deeper process that leads to a better learning.

Long Term Memory Unlimited storehouse of information.(filing cabinet) Explicit (declarative) memories – with conscious recall; known Implicit (non-declarative) memories – without conscious recall; not aware of

Explicit Memories Episodic Memories – personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events. Semantic Memories – knowledge of language and learned in formal education. Facts.

Implicit Memories Procedural Memories-skills, and conditioned responses that are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior. (covering a cough), Do not loose even with Alzheimer Classically Conditioned Memories- that are conditioned emotional memories; fear of dog

Types of Long Term Memory Declarative Memory – things people can know (Explicit memory) Episodic memory: Events experienced by a person (updated and change over time) Semantic memory : Facts, general knowledge Procedural memory – non-declarative – unconscious things people can do (implicit memory) Motor skills And CC reflexes or habits (not all implicit memory are procedural, like learned fears or habits you are not conscious of the origin)

Where does memory reside? Hippocampus – new long term memories Amygdala – emotional memories Working memory – must be in prefrontal cortex to use for high order thinking Cerebellum - procedural

How are Memories Retrieved? Retrieval cues – any stimulus for remembering; the more cues you use the easier it is to retrieve that information. Almost anything in one’s surrounding can become a cue!

Environmental cues to help you remember Encoding Specificity – retrieve in same surroundings as when you encoded the memory State (Mood) Congruent Memory remembering better if you are in the same mood as when you learn it; or when you are angry with someone, you can remember every bad thing about them.

What factors influence how memories are retrieved? Two kinds of retrieval, recall and recognition Even though recognition is better or easier, It is not always foolproof!

Which information will you remember? Serial Positioning Effect Primacy Effect Recency Effect

Hey, don’t I know you from somewhere? False positive – error in recognition in which people think that they recognize some stimulus that is not actually in memory. ( like needle in the list) Sometimes simply referred to as false memory

Flashbulb Memories automatic encoding vs. effortful encoding Type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it.

How reliable are our memories? Constructive processing – retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influence by newer information. Hindsight bias – falsely believe one could have correctly predicted an outcome, knew it all along. Misinformation effect – misleading information presented after an event that alters the memories of the event itself. Elizabeth Loftus – eyewitness testimony

Constructive Memory Memories are not always what they seem. Elizabeth Loftus A constructed memory is a created memory. Misinformation effect

Why do we forget? Encoding failure orilla+video&sm=1 orilla+video&sm=1 Decay Interference We want to Amnesia from Old age, Illness, or brain damage Chemical imbalances – having a baby

Forgetting – Encoding failure

Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve The more you rehearse the more you retain. Overlearning? But, after information has been rehearsed, you lose a lot at first, but then what goes into LTM is there forever. ?

Memory trace decay theory Like long-term potentiation A physical change in the brain – activity between neurons when a memory is formed Overtime, if not used then they may decay (loss of memory due to passage of time) Similar to a path formed on grass Disuse – another name for decay, memories not used will disappear

Forgetting Caused by Interference Retroactive (retrospective) Interference: new information blocks out old information. Proactive - (Prospective) Interference: old information blocks out new information. Calling your new girlfriend by old girlfriends name. Getting a new bus number and forgetting old bus number.

Motivated Forgetting Repression = Anxiety Freud Little scientific evidence Ironic because stress increases memory Stress hormones (cheating)

Types of Amnesia Retrograde amnesia – loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards. Anterograde amnesia – loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma forward, the inability to form new memories, such as in senile dementia and Alzheimer Infantile amnesia - Preschooler more susceptible to false memories, no memory before age 2 or ability to comprehend language- most memories are implicit because brain is not completely myelinated, autobiographical memory – when child can start a memory for events and facts related to his own personal story.

Retrograde amnesia Loss of memory before an accident Maybe did not go into long- term memory.

Storing Memories Long Term-Potentiation long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously. In other words…they learn to fire together and get better at it…creating a memory. Like a well-traveled dirt road

Three Box Model of Memory

Take out a piece of paper and name all the Presidents…