Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 8 Emotion and Motivation This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN:
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Is Emotion? Emotion – A four-part process consisting of physiological arousal, cognitive interpretation subjective feelings, and behavioral expression
Why do we Experience Emotion? What comes first? The thought The physiological arousal The event that precipitated the emotion in the first place? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
What Do Our Emotions Do For Us? Emotions have evolved to help us respond to important situations and to convey our intentions to others
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Evolution of Emotions Emotions have survival value and have been shaped by natural selection Individuals vary tremendously in emotional responsiveness Emotions are not entirely programmed by genetics
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cultural Universals in Emotional Expression People everywhere can recognize at least seven basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and surprise There are, however, huge cultural differences in the context and intensity of emotional displays
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cultural Universals in Emotional Expression Display rules – Permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Emotion Wheel
Microexpressions Paul Ekman studied minute facial expressions that are innate and last for less than 1/2 second. Difficult to hide. The tell the truth about our emotions. Reflexes, little variance among people, universal Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Which is the Hardest to Control? 1.Tone of Voice is very difficult to control. Higher pitch indicates lying. 2.Body Gestures more difficult to control than Facial Expressions. 3.Facial Expressions easiest to control. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The discovery of two distinct brain pathways for emotional arousal has clarified the connections among the many biological structures involved in emotion and has offered solutions to many of the long- standing issues in the psychology of emotion Where Do Our Emotions Come From?
Two Track Brain 1.Sensory input may be routed directly to the amygdala (via the thalamus) for an instant emotional reaction 2. Sensory input may be routed to the thalamus, the sensory cortex, the prefrontal cortex and then the amygdala Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Two Track Brain The speedy low road route enables fast reactions without intellect intervention. (survival) The slow high road route enables us to take more control over our emotions and life. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Neuroscience of Emotion The biological mechanisms at work behind our emotions include: The limbic system The reticular formation The cerebral cortex The autonomic nervous system Hormones
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory– An emotion-provoking stimulus produces a physical response that, in turn, produces an emotion Cannon-bard theory – An emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time One is not the cause of the other Both the result of a cognitive appraisal of the situation
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Theories of Emotion Two-factor theory of emotion / Schacter- Singer Emotion results from the cognitive appraisal of both (1) physical arousal and (2) emotion provoking stimulus
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Emotion fear Cognitive interpretation “I feel afraid!” Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate James- Lange theory Cannon- bard theory Two- factor theory Stimulus snake Stimulus Emotion fear Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Emotion fear
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Theories of Emotion Cognitive appraisal theory – (Lazarus) Theory that individuals decide on an appropriate emotion following the event
Opponent Process Theory Emotions work in Pairs One emotion triggers the opposite to suppress Example: Drug Use and Withdrawal While one is elevated the other descends Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Performance LowHigh Low High Arousal Level Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U” Inverted “U” function – Describes the relationship between arousal and performance; both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U” Sensation seekers – Individuals who have a biological need for higher levels of stimulation than do other people (also known as the Arousal Theory of Motivation)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Much Control Do We Have Over Our Emotions? Although emotional responses are not always consciously regulated, we can learn to control them
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Developing Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence – Ability to understand and control emotional responses Emotional control can be achieved by learning
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Detecting Deception People can also control their emotions to deceive Do “lie detectors” really work? Polygraph – Device that records the graphs of many measures of physical arousal; often called a “lie detector” really an arousal detector
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivation takes many forms, but all involve inferred mental processes that select and direct our behavior Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do? Motivation – All processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Psychologists Use the Concept of Motivation Motivation Connects observable behavior to internal states Accounts for variability in behavior Explains perseverance despite adversity Relates biology to behavior
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Types of Motivation Drive – Biologically instigated motivation Motive – Internal mechanism that directs behavior (often used to describe motivations that are learned, rather that biologically based)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Types of Motivation Intrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity for its own sake Extrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence (e.g. a reward)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Types of Motivation Conscious motivation – Having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of the desire Unconscious motivation – Having a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire (Freud Repression)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Theories of Motivation 1.Instinct theory – View that certain behaviors are determined by innate factors Fixed-action patterns – (birds fly south) Genetically based behaviors, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Theories of Motivation 2.Drive theory – View that a biological need (an imbalance that threatens survival) produces drive Homeostasis – The body’s tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition
Arousal Theory The Inverted U Theory: those who require a higher level of stimulation to maintain their personal level of homeostasis. Sensation/Thrill Seekers operate according to this theory of motivation. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Theories of Motivation Cognitive Theory Locus of control – An individual’s sense of where his or her life influences originate–internally or externally Learned Helplessness: passive resignation following recurring failure or punishment
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Maslow’s Humanistic Theory 3.Hierarchy of needs – The notion that needs occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic
Opponent Process Theory of Motivation Opponent-process theory – Theory that emotions have pairs; when one is triggered the other is suppressed Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Rewards Can Sometimes Squelch Motivation Overjustification – The process by which extrinsic rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation, as when a child receives money for playing video games
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 No single theory accounts for all forms of motivation, because each motive involves its own mix of biological, mental, behavioral, and social/cultural influences How Are Achievement, Hunger, and Sex Alike? Different?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Measuring the Need for Achievement Projection – Process by which people attribute their own unconscious motives to other people or objects (TAT Tests) Need for achievement (n Ach) – Mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or reach some goal
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Achievement Individualism – View that places a high value on individual achievement and distinction Collectivism – View that values group loyalty and pride over individual distinction
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Hunger Motivation The multiple-systems approach to hunger Set point – Refers to the tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight Weight control is a complex issue with no simple answers
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Thirst and Pain Volumetric thirst – A drop in extracellular fluid levels Osmotic thirst – A drop in intracellular fluid levels
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Scientific Study of Sexuality Kinsey interviewed 17,000 Americans concerning their sexual behavior Masters and Johnson Sexual response cycle – Four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution occurring in both men and women
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Phases of Human Sexual Response
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sexual Motivation Virtually any stimulus that becomes associated with genital touch and orgasm can become a conditioned stimulus that motivates sexual activity Sexual scripts – Socially learned ways of responding in sexual situations Both learning and genetics affect our sexual behaviors
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motives in Conflict Approach-approach conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between two equally attractive options Approach-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motives in Conflict Avoidance-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between two equally unattractive options Multiple approach-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Origins of Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation – One’s erotic attraction toward members of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How and Why Do We Experience Stress? The human stress response to perceived threat activates thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and physiological arousal that normally promote adaptation and survival
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stress and Stressors Stress – A physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation Stressor – a stressful stimulus, a condition demanding adaptation
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 A Model of Stress
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Traumatic Stressors Traumatic stressor – a situation that threatens one’s physical safety, arousing feelings of feel, horror, or helplessness
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Catastrophe Cohen and Ahearn identified five stages that occur in the wake of natural disasters Psychic numbness Automatic action Communal effort Letdown Recovery
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Posttraumatic Stress Posttraumatic stress disorder – delayed stress reaction in which an individual involuntarily re-experiences emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of past trauma
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Physical Stress Response Acute stress – A temporary pattern of arousal caused by a stressor with a clear onset and offset Chronic stress – A continuous state of stressful arousal persisting over time
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Physical Stress Response Fight-or-flight response – A sequence of internal processes that prepares the organism for struggle or escape Tend-and-befriend model – stress response model proposing that females are biologically predisposed to respond to stress by nurturing and protecting offspring and seeking social support
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Physical Stress Response General adaptation syndrome (GAS) – A pattern of general physical responses that takes essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Resistance Resistance – the body seems to adapt to the presence of the stressor Alarm Reaction Alarm reaction – the body mobilizes it’s resources to cope with a stressor The General Adaptation Syndrome Exhaustion Illness/death Exhaustion – the body depletes it’s resources Level of normal resistance Successful Resistance
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stress and the Immune System Immune system – bodily organs and responses that protect the body from foreign substances and threats
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stress and the Immune System Psychoneuroimmunology – Multidisciplinary field that studies the influence of mental states on the immune system Cytokines – Hormone-like chemicals facilitating communication between brain and immune system
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Personality and Stress Type A – behavior pattern characterized by intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic responses to challenging situations Type B – behavior pattern characterized by a relaxed, unstressed approach to life
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Responses to Stress Learned helplessness – Pattern of not responding to noxious stimuli after an organism learns that its behavior has no effect
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Psychological Responses to Stress Resilience – Capacity to adapt, achieve well-being, and cope with stress, in spite of serious threats to development
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivating Yourself Flow – An intense focus on an activity, accompanied by increased creativity and near-ecstatic feelings Involves intrinsic motivation
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 8