Chapter 7-9 Review Key Concepts

Ch. 7  Cognition and Language

Spoken language is based on phonemes, the basic sounds that make up a language. Phonemes group together to form morphemes, the smallest meaningful units of speech, such as simple words, prefixes, and suffixes. When we wish to communicate an idea, we start with a thought, then choose words and phrases that will express the idea, and produce the speech sounds of those words and phrases. To understand speech, the task is reversed.

Problem Solving  A.Algorithms and Heuristics –Algorithms - formula that guarantees solution (math/science formulas) –Heuristic- formula (rule of thumb) but does not guarantee solution Hill climbing –Each step is closer to goal Subgoals –Important because manageable

 B.Experience and Expertise  C.Obstacles to Solving Problems Mental sets –Tendency to see things a certain way –Match ProblemMatch Problem Functional fixedness –Only see a limited number of uses –Elevator Problem – Write Down Your SolutionElevator Problem – Write Down Your Solution –Elevator SolutionElevator Solution

Decision Making  A.Weighing Pros and Cons Compensatory model –Click here to view the Decision Making tableClick here to view the Decision Making table  B.Decision-Making Heuristic –Representativeness heuristic Compare to stereotypical model –Availability heuristic Based on most easily obtained info –Confirmation bias Biased in favor of our belief –Prejudice or self-esteem problems

 C.Framing –See the problem in a new context  D.Decision Under Pressure Hindsight bias Counter factual thinking

Ch. 8 Intelligence and Mental Abililty Definition of Intelligence: A general term referring to the abilities involved in learning an adaptive behavior.

What Makes a Good Test?  A.Reliability –Consistent, repeatability  B.Validity –True measure Content validity –Is it measuring the skills and knowledge it is designed to measure? Criterion-related validity –Relationship between test scores and independent measure

 C.Criticisms of IQ Tests Test content and scores –Measures ability to take test Use of IQ scores –Permanent labeling IQ and success –Does exist but may be self-fulfilling prophecy

What Determines Intelligence?  A.Heredity –Genetics  B.Environment –Social and biological environment  C.The IQ Debate: A Continuing Controversy –Most people agree that both heredity and environment affect IQ scores. The debate is about the relative proportions.

Ch. 9  Motivation and Emotion

 Motive: –Specific need, desire, or want, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement, that prompts goal- oriented behavior.  Emotion: –Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior.

Perspectives on Motivation  A.Instincts - Inborn, goal-directed behavior  B.Drive-Reduction Theory –Behavior motivated to reduce arousal  C.Arousal Theory Yerkes-Dodson Law –The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated without interfering with performance Incentives - objects which motivate behavior

 D.Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation –Intrinsic Internal motivation (job satisfaction) –Extrinsic Motivated by reward or to avoid punishment

Hunger and Thirst  A.Biological Factors –Hunger Regulated by two regions in hypothalamus Changes in glucose level signal need for food Receptors in stomach and a hormone released by small intestine also signal brain –Weight loss Set Point –Metabolism, intake, storage linked to defend weight

 B.Cultural and Environmental Factors –Responses to food are governed by learning and social conditioning –Culture also influences what we choose to eat and how much

 C.Eating disorders Anorexia nervosa –Self starvation Bulimia –Binge then purge  D.Thirst –Thirst parallels hunger in that both internal and external cues can trigger the thirst drive

Other Motives  A.Exploration and Curiosity  B.Manipulation and Contact  C.Aggression –Intent –Aggression and Culture –Gender and Aggression

 D.Achievement –Achievement motive - excel  E.Affiliation –Affiliation motive - need to be with others  F.A Hierarchy of Motives –Bodily needs, safety, belonging, self-esteem, self-actualization